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2 A. Philip Randolph Philip Randolph was a trade unionist and one of the major civil rights leaders in America. In 1912, he founded an employment agency with Chandler Owen that tried to organize black workers. After the United States declared war on Germany in 1917, the two men started a magazine, THE MESSENGER, that called for more jobs in the war industry and the armed forces for blacks. After World War I, Randolph ran unsuccessfully for office on the Socialist Party ticket. In 1925, he was asked by a group of porters working for the Pullman Company to establish a union for them. He founded the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (BSCP) and began organizing porters, facing fierce opposition not only from the Pullman Company, but also from middle-class blacks in Chicago, who did not want to provoke the company. In the 1940s Randolph focused on to the question of black employment in the federal government and in industries with federal contracts. He warned President FDR that he would lead one hundred thousands blacks in a protest march on Washington, D.C. Roosevelt yielded to the pressure and on June 25, 1941, he issued Executive Order 8802, barring discrimination in defense industries and federal bureaus, and creating the Fair Employment Practices Committee. After World War II, Randolph pressed President Harry S. Truman to integrate the army. On July 26, 1948, Truman issued Executive Order 9981, banning segregation in the armed forces, partially because of Randolph's pressure, but also because Truman was aware that the black vote was critical to his re-election. Randolph fought against racism that still persisted in the union. In August of 1963, as the Civil Rights movement was gaining ground, Randolph became a director of the famous March on Washington. More than 200,000 people came to the capital to demonstrate support for civil-rights policies for blacks. It was at this gathering that Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. --Richard Wormser, courtesty of PBS.org

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5 Japanese-American Internment Over 127,000 United States citizens were imprisoned during World War II. Their crime? Being of Japanese ancestry. ANT I-JAPANESE PARANOIA increased because of a large Japanese presence on the West Coast. In the event of a Japanese invasion of the American mainland, Japanese Americans were feared as a security risk. Succumbing to bad advice and popular opinion, President Roosevelt signed an executive order in February 1942 ordering the RELOCAT ION of all Americans of Japanese ancestry to CONCENT RAT ION CAMPS in the interior of the United States. After being forced from their communities, Japanese families made military style barracks their homes. Until the camps were completed, many of the evacuees were held in temporary centers, such as stables at local racetracks. Almost two-thirds of the interns were N ISEI, or Japanese Americans born in the United States. It made no difference that many had never even been to Japan. Even Japanese-American veterans of World War I were forced to leave their homes. Ten camps were finally completed in remote areas of seven western states. Housing was meager, consisting mainly of tarpaper barracks. Families dined together at communal mess halls, and children were expected to attend school. Adults had the option of working for a salary of $5 per day. The United States government hoped that the interns could make the camps self-sufficient by farming to produce food. But cultivation on arid soil was quite a challenge. In 1988, Congress attempted to apologize for the action by awarding each surviving intern $20,000. While the American concentration camps never reached the levels of Nazi death camps as far as atrocities are concerned, they remain a dark mark on the nation's record of respecting civil liberties and cultural differences.

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8 Women and Minorities in America The mobilization for war helped to lift the country's economy out of the Great Depression, and demand for workers soared. Perhaps the most enduring image of American life on the home front is that of "Rosie the Riveter." Inspired by a Norman Rockwell drawing, "Rosie" came to symbolize the ideal female war worker: she was strong and patriotic, yet retained her feminine look. The number of employed American women increased from fourteen million to nineteen million during the war, and the number of mothers in the workforce grew seventy-six percent between 1940 and For many members of the nation's African-American population, the very location of their homes changed during the war years, as over half a million blacks migrated from the South to northern and western cities in search of war work. Upon arrival in cities such as Detroit, Michigan, and Richmond, California, African- American migrants faced hostility not only from employers but also from the white citizens. They also resented the construction of housing for African-Americans in previously white neighborhoods. In early June 1943, the tensions between white and blacks grew so intense that full-scale rioting erupted in Detroit's streets, leading to the deaths of nine whites and twenty-five blacks. That same month, violence broke out in Los Angeles.

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11 Rationing A variety of shortages occurred due to the volume of supplies needed overseas. Some things were scarce because they normally were imported from countries with whom we were at war or because they had to be brought in by ship from foreign places. Rationing, instituted in the spring of 1942, was a system that provided everyone with the same amount of scarce goods. The system was designed to keep prices low and to make sure people had what they needed. Each member of the family was issued ration books, and it was the challenge of the homemaker to pool the stamps and plan the family's meals within the set limits. Grocers and other business people would post what your ration could buy that week. It was up to you to decide how to spend your stamps. Ration books became a way of life for everyone at home during World War II. You had to have ration stamps to buy things at the store. It still cost money, but you couldn't buy it unless you had stamps.

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14 War Bonds Issued by the U.S. Government, they were first called Defense Bonds. The name was changed to War Bonds after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, December 7, Living in the United States with a median income during World War II meant earning about $2,000 a year. Despite the war s hardships, 134 million Americans were asked to purchase war bonds to help fund the war. Stamps also could be purchased, starting at 10 cents each, to save toward the bond. Buying a bond represented a moral and financial stake in the war effort. An emotional appeal went out to citizens by means of advertising. The advertisements started with radio and newspapers, then later added magazines to reach the masses. Bond rallies were held throughout the country with famous celebrities, usually Hollywood film stars, to enhance the advertising's effectiveness. At the end of World War II, January 3, 1946, the last proceeds from the Victory War Bond campaign were deposited into the U.S. Treasury. More than 85 million Americans half the population purchased bonds totaling $185.7 billion. Those incredible results, due to the mass selling efforts of helping to finance the war, have never since been matched.

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17 Women and Minorities At War Minorities in World War II During World War II, the U.S. Army armed forces grew to 8,225,353. There were 7,181,784 white Americans (87%), 901,896 African-Americans (11%), and 141,673 Japanese, Hispanics, and other minority groups (2%) (Data from selective Service and Victory: The 4th Report of the Director of Selective Service) Though tensions of discrimination existed, American citizens with foreign ancestry were allowed to enlist and fight for the United States. Women s Army Auxiliary Corps In an era where inequality between sexes was still prevalent, women were not readily accepted into the Army. Congresswoman Edith Nourse Rogers proposed a bill to then Army s chief of staff General George Marshall that would launch the Women s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC). When FDR signed the bill into a law, there was an influx of women volunteers, and by the end of the war, 150,000 American women were serving in the WAAC. Women proved to very versatile. Some worked as clerks, typists, researchers, engineers, mechanics, and electricians. Some worked in the Quartermaster Corps, the Chemical Warfare Service, the Signal Corps, and the Army Medical Department. They served as the backbone of the military, and the Army would have been crippled without their service.

18 African-Americans "Double V" The 1940 Selective Service Act allowed African-Americans to be enlisted in the Army, where they joined different military branches- Army, Navy, Marine Corps and the Coast Guard. FDR also gave them the permission to join the Air Corps, and to attend officer training schools. Despite these anti-racist policies, discrimination still occurred in the Army. African-Americans had to contend with two battles: their personal psychological conflict due to racism, and their military confrontations. Because of this, Black activists demanded a Double V sign to represent two victories.: one on the battlefront and one on the homefront. Dorie Miller was a 3rd class cook in the Navy, and he was stationed at Pearl Harbor when the American naval base was bombed on December 7, He did not hesitate amidst the presence of hundreds of enemy planes hitting them from all directions. Until that day, Miller had never fired an anti-aircraft weapon, but he did not hesitate to use it against the adversary when opportunity presented itself. For his heroic acts, Dorie Miller became the first African- American to be awarded the Navy Cross. In the movie Pearl Harbor released in 2001, Dorie Miller was played by actor Cuba Gooding Jr. American-Indians The Navajo Code Talkers The idea of using an unbreakable code to assure secure transmission during combat operations was proposed by World War I veteran Philip Johnston. He suggested the use of the Navajo language, which is an unwritten language of extreme complexity. The Navajo code was never deciphered by Japanese Intelligence. These code talkers were able to coordinate American naval gunfire and air support to Japanese positions, and the enemy never saw them coming. A total of 540 Navajos served with the Marines during World War II. The movie Windtalkers starring Nicolas Cage, retells the gripping tale of the Navajo soldiers.

19 Hispanics Hispanics have always participated in every war America has fought, and World War II saw thousands of Hispanics taking arms in this conflict. Records show around 53,000 Puerto Ricans serving in the Army. The New Mexico National Guard based in the Philippines was the largest American unit in that archipelago. Hispanics in this unit suffered with their comrades in the infamous Bataan Death March. The 141st Infantry Regiment from Texas is famed not only for the large number of Hispanics in their unit, but also for 361 straight days of hard fighting during the war. Japanese Americans The 442nd regiment In early 1943, the government gave Japanese Americans the chance to enlist in the U.S. Army. Thus, the 442nd regiment was born, composed of Nisei volunteers from Hawaii and the mainland. More than 33,000 Niseis joined the Army and fought many European campaigns. After 8 major campaigns in Europe, the 442nd received a total of 18,000 awardsamong these are 7 presidential unit citations, 9,500 Purple Hearts, and 52 Distinguished Service Crosses. In the process, they earned the respect of their fellow soldiers.

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22 The Manhattan Project In 1939, German refugee Albert Einstein penned a letter to President Roosevelt urging the development of an atomic research program. Roosevelt saw neither the necessity nor the utility for such a project, but agreed to proceed slowly. In late 1941, the American effort to design and build an AT OMIC BOMB received its code name the MANHATTAN PROJECT. Secrecy was paramount (vital). Neither the Germans nor the Japanese could learn of the project. Roosevelt and Churchill also agreed that the Stalin would be kept in the dark. Consequently, there was no public awareness or debate. Keeping 120,000 people quiet would be impossible; therefore only a small privileged team of inner scientists and officials knew about the atomic bomb's development. In fact, Vice- President Truman had never heard of the Manhattan Project until he became President Truman. By the summer of 1945, scientist Robert Oppenheimer was ready to test the first bomb. On July 16, 1945, at T RINITY SITE near ALAMOGORDO, NEW MEXICO, scientists of the Manhattan Project readied themselves to watch the detonation of the world's first atomic bomb. The device was affixed to a 100- foot tower and discharged just before dawn. No one was properly prepared for the result. A blinding flash visible for 200 miles lit up the morning sky. A mushroom cloud reached 40,000 feet, blowing out windows of civilian homes up to 100 miles away. When the cloud returned to earth it created a half-mile wide crater metamorphosing sand into glass. A bogus cover-up story was quickly released, explaining that a huge ammunition dump had just exploded in the desert. Soon word reached President Truman in Potsdam, Germany that the project was successful. The world had entered the nuclear age.

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