How do Developing Countries Catch Up with Developed Countries in Gaining Access to the. Internet? Take Chinese Taipei as an Example

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1 How do Developing Countries Catch Up with Developed Countries in Gaining Access to the Internet? Take Chinese Taipei as an Example Paper presented at the annual conference of the Pacific Telecommunications Council, Honolulu, USA. Abstract This paper comprises six parts. First, I review and discuss concepts related to the global digital divide. Next, I discuss the negative impact of a broadening digital divide. Third, I discuss the phenomena of digital divide within one country as well as across countries using empirical statistics. These statistics show that the global digital divide is a relevant concept in today's global telecommunications environment. In addition, it shows the depletion of the global in recent years. In order to explain how developing countries catch up with developed countries in gaining access to information and communication technologies (ICTs), I use Taiwan as an example to discuss the digital divide and global digital divide. Following this, I explain how the Taiwanese government employed an effective telecom policy framework to reduce the local and international digital divide and facilitate telecommunication development so as to digitally leapfrog the developed world. In the final section, I discuss whether the digital divide serves as a useful policy concept. In my response, I use Internet user ratio, one of the most acceptable digital divide indictors, as the main measurement. Definition of Digital Divide/Global Digital Divide In the information age, within the global telecommunication industry and information society, ICTs including telephone lines, mobile phones, dialup and broadband have become the essential parts of many people s life. With proficiently operating ICTs, information can be 1

2 transmitted across different areas immediately. People who know how to exploit ICTs can easily facilitate their lives and even live better due to knowledge economics, whereas people who are not familiar with ICTs do not enjoy these benefits. With booming information economics and rapid technological expansion, the disparity between those who have and those who do not have access to information technology becomes evident. The phrase Digital Divide was coined in the mid-1990s. It raised the question of who has access to information and communication technologies and who does not. Economic factors such as geography, regulation, gender, disabilities, socioeconomic status, accessibility and cost all lead to inequalities in technological literacy and unequal access to information technology. Let me take geography as an example. City infrastructure is usually much better equipped than the countryside in regards to technology development. Furthermore, wireless companies need to develop their economies to scale to lower its total cost and offer competitive prices to attract customers. It is no doubt that cities with a high population density will be a good target. For rural areas, wireless providers might have to transfer some of their costs to consumers if there is no reimbursement or tax relief from the government. According to Norris (2001) argument, the digital divide can be broken down into three aspects to be better understood: 1. The global digital divide refers to the different levels of capacity to access ICTs between industrialized and developing nations. 2. The social digital divide is viewed as inequalities of access to ICTs between those who are information rich and those who are information poor within a country. 2

3 3. The democratic digital divide is seen as the difference between those who utilize ICTs and those who do not use these digital resources. Based on the Norris (2001) definition, the digital divide can also be viewed as an inequality between different countries, and therefore, a global digital divide is formed. A global digital divide is defined as an inconsistency in information technology access across areas and countries in the world. Today, although a global diffusion of technology exists, the ability for individuals to access ICTs vary substantially among countries. For instance, North America and Europe are ranked as the top two areas in terms of access to technology. Let me take India and U.S. for example. The rate in the U.S. is 100 times that of in India, or 60% versus 0.6% in regards to computer ownership. Apparently, the U.S. has much higher penetration rates for computer and Internet usage. It is easier for people in developed countries, than those in other developing countries, to access a computer and the Internet. Consequently, the differences among developing semi-periphery and developed core countries are blatantly huge. Also, according to the findings of some cross-sectional research, ICT s penetration rates varying among countries is fundamentally related to economics factors such as individuals income per capita and cost of technology access. Further, socioeconomic status is the effective index for ICTs exploitation. It indicates that people with higher socioeconomic status have more opportunities to use ICTs than others. In addition, the competitive environment of the telecommunication industry, political and sociological differences are also crucial issues (Bauer, Berne & Maitland, 2002). 3

4 Impact of Digital Divide The disadvantages of a broadening digital divide within one country not only reflect the widening communication gap among different groups, but also worsen social inequality. Therefore, it will result in social turbulence and hinder economic development. Furthermore, digital divides across countries is closely linked to the overall economic development of the world. In the 21st century, information technology is the most powerful force because it is one of the most crucial factors in the world economic system. Developed countries have the advantage of establishing operations of emerging giant Internet companies such as Microsoft, Intel, Corp, Verizon Corp, Yahoo, and Google.com to increase the growth of economic development compared to developing countries that do not have that advantage. With the help of sustained evolving information technology, countries with integrated infrastructures can exploit these new economics forces to create more wealth for their owners. Therefore, the growing gap of information technology usage will deteriorate the financial imbalance in world eco-economics. According to the research on universal service conducted by Schement, Pressman, Povich in 1995, those who cannot have access to ICTs fully are at the margins of society because they do not have the sufficient capacity in communicating with outside world. They are easily isolated and based on their socioeconomic status and they are likely to experience difficulties in competing with others. In addition to economics, the globalization pace is accelerated by information circulation now, more so than ever. However, not everyone benefits from that on an equal basis. Some cultures are harmed by prevailing industries instead. Let me take websites for example. There are more than 600 million websites frequently used. The primary languages are broken down into English (72%), Japanese (7%), and German (5%). Despite the fact that more than 1,000 4

5 languages exist in the world, Spanish, Chinese, and French, though widespread, just comprise 1 to 2 percent of all websites. This also reflects the status quo of national power. More specifically, English, the dominant language in the world, established an enormous empire that rules areas of commerce, science, art, and even information technology now. With the emergence of the United States after World War II, the position of English in the world is untouchable. MS-DOS, Linux, Unix, and Windows series, are all developed by English-speaking pioneers and though attempts have been made, no one has successfully been able to match their progress. Moreover, ICTs flow also demonstrates the might of cultures and the direction to which the flow of ICTs will follow. Some scholars called it digital colonialism because some people only accept imported information from dominant cultures but have not been able to reimburse these countries back with local content. Therefore, global digital divide is a relevant concept in today's global telecommunications environment. Policymakers need to consider linking the entire world of advanced (core) counties and developing (peripheral) countries to the information superhighway. Empirical Statistics of Global Digital Divide From Without a doubt, a global digital divide exist. It is more important to study whether the gap of the global digital divide is narrowing down or broadening. While most researches look at developed and developing countries to examine the gap, this paper focuses on income level to examine the gaps. According to definition of Wikipedia 1, developed industrial countries are those who possess relatively high standards of living through a strong high-technology diversified economy and most of them have a high Gross Domestic Production (GDP). Although 1 Wikipedia is a Web-based and free-content encyclopedia with 200 language editions. 5

6 according to the survey of World Development Indicators database, the ratio of Internet users for low income countries and high income countries generally showed upward trend from 1999 to 2003, the ratio of Internet users for high-income countries is overwhelmingly higher than that for low/middle income countries (See Figure 1). It seems that the digital divide gap is getting worse. On the other hand, from a more positive perspective, the gap might be narrowing based on the value of uplifting acceleration. The number in Table 2 shows that the average growth rate in the period from 1999 to 2003 for low income countries is much higher than that for high income countries about 50% vs. 25%. In addition, the ratio of Internet use from 2002 to 2003 for middle/low income countries demonstrated a small but significant increase compared to higher income countries. More specifically, Internet usage in low income countries grew more than twice as fast in three periods , and However, the ratio of growth in Internet usage in high income countries decreased from 2000 to 2003 at 38%, 23%, 15% and 4% per annum respectively. Figure 1: Internet Use in High and Income Countries from 1999 to 2003 Internet users (per 1,000 people) High Income Countries Low Income Countries

7 Table 1: Internet User Per 1,000 People From 1999 to 2003 Countries High income High income: nonoecd High income: OECD Low & middle income Low income Lower middle income World Source: World Development Indicators Database 2 ; Table 2: Internet user per 1,000 people growth rate (%) from 2000 to 2003 Countries High income 38% 23% 15% 4% High income: nonoecd 54% 31% 17% -3% High income: OECD 30% 12% 12% 6% Low & middle income 71% 50% 47% 42% Low income 100% 0% 100% 100% Lower middle income 64% 50% 67% 40% World 44% 26% 22% 15% Source: World Development Indicators database; Similarly, according to the World Bank 3 report in 2005, the global digital divide is rapidly closing over the last ten years. The developing countries are getting access to internet at an incredible rate in recent years to catch up with the developed countries. Therefore, if developing countries can put more successful efforts to bridge digital divide within their own countries, which minimizes the global digital divide across nations, the global digital divide may narrowing 2 World Development Indicators Database provides the development statistics from the World Bank 3 The report World Band News is released in February 28, 2005, entitled World Bank highlights role of private and public sectors In Closing Digital Divide. The World Bank was established in July 1, The member is 184 countries. There are two main institutions, including the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA). The mission of World Bank is to help developing countries with financial and technical assistance such as providing low-interest loans. 7

8 further. As the chart demonstrates, developing countries have a big chance to catch up with high income countries if their growth rate can be sustained (See Figure1). Many developing countries are on the way to shape their future by turning the digital divide into a digital opportunity. According to the executive summary of the statement of the World Economic Forum held in 2000, many countries in Asia, Latin America, Africa and Middle East grasp the digital divide opportunities by private sector and government s cooperation to reform related policies, decrease access cost, and enhance infrastructures, and increase ICTs usage. Developing countries also copy or imitate successful policies from developed countries. Taiwan is a good example in explaining how developing countries catch up with developed countries in view of narrowing down the digital divide. This is discussed in the following section. The Digital Divide in Taiwan: Taiwan is famous for its information technology manufacture and ICT development performance. In 2000, the ranking for Taiwan Internet user ratio was superior to that for its GDP per capita in view of ICT development (Norris, 2001, p.56). According to International Telecommunications Union (ITU), Taiwan is ranked as the ninth in 2003 Digital Access Index regarding to ICT infrastructure and prevalence. In addition, the Taiwanese authority, the Ministry of Transportation and Communications (MOTC), also released a statistical report that about 39% Taiwanese can access the Internet, approximately 8.8 million Internet users out of 23 million total populations. Digital Divide of Internet in Taiwan The survey of Internet use in Taiwan from 1997 to 2005 conducted by the Internet News 8

9 and Data (FIND) 4 indicated that the Internet user ratio enjoyed a great leap from 6% in 1996 to 39% in Hereafter, the Internet user growth ratio showed a smooth and steady increase rather than the previous steep trend (See the Figure 2). Figure 2: Growth of Internet Use in Taiwan from 1997 to 2005 (June) Taiwan Internet User Growth Rate Source: ACI IDEA. In 2001, Taiwan encountered an Internet diffusion bottleneck after its period of dramatic fast growth. It was similar to the household telephone penetration scenario in America in 1970, which was a telephone diffusion bottleneck. At that time, it was difficult to exceed 90% after a great growth of telephone penetration ratio in the previous 24 years (Schement, 1995). Based on the expectation of the diffusion model of communications technology, the diffusion is in the peak of the S-shape. That means the growth momentum was diminishing. The solution is to improve socioeconomics, such as enhancing the education level and cultivating citizens essential skills. In addition, government should help the poor to access to Internet through subsidies and decreasing access cost, so as to be affordable to the masses. 4 The FIND is one organization in the Institute of Information Industry (III) under the support of the Department of Industrial Technology (DOIT), Ministry of Economic Affairs (MOEA). In this survey, internet users were defined as those who use the Internet at least two hours in a week. 9

10 The factors causing Digital Divide of Taiwan The digital divide in Taiwan is the mixed consequence of social inequity resulted from education and region. Those with higher education are more likely to have higher income and can afford the latest information technology products and services. Those living in urban areas are more likely to enjoy the benefit of infrastructure which is of high priority to build in a city in view of usage efficiency. However, most highly-educated individuals live in cities, such as Taipei and Kuohsiung. That is why the gap of disparity of capability to access Internet between cities and rural areas exist. 1. Region Generally speaking, Taiwan can be divided into four areas Northern TW, Central TW, Southern TW, and Eastern TW. Furthermore, there are two municipalities in Taiwan. One is Taipei, the capital and business center, located in northern Taiwan. The other is Kaohsiung, the business and industrial center, located in Southern Taiwan. According to official surveys conducted by the MOTC in 1998, 1999, 2001, 2003 and 2005, Northern Taiwan with a higher level of urbanization and population density than other areas, is ranked as the highest in terns of Internet user ratio ranking. However, Eastern Taiwan with a lower level of urbanization and population density is ranked the lowest in terms of Internet user ratio. In addition, Central Taiwan and Southern Taiwan are almost at the same level in this index. More specifically, it is worth comparing the ratio of Internet use in Taipei and Kaohiung. Taipei has a higher level of urbanization than Kaohsiung and thus has a higher ratio of Internet usage than Kaohiung (See Table 3 and Figure 3). The survey shows a usage gap exists among Northern TW and other areas. Therefore, the level of urbanization of a region is a crucial factor that facilitates a digital divide. In order to bridge the gap between each area, the Taiwan government should enhance its efforts 10

11 to improve the ICT infrastructure in rural areas such as Eastern Taiwan. Table3: The Penetration of Internet Users* in Different Taiwan from 1998 to 2005 Taipei Kaohsiung Northern Taiwan Central Taiwan Southern Taiwan Eastern Taiwan % 12.40% 13.00% 11.30% 9.40% % 22.60% 21.90% 16.00% 15.10% 13.90% % 41.80% 38.10% 33.70% 30.70% 28.00% % 51.50% 51.10% 44.60% 41.70% 41.90% % 59.20% 57.90% 50.20% 48.00% 50.00% * Internet user was defined as those who once use the Internet in a month. Source: MOTC, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2003 and Figure 3: The Penetration of Internet Users in Different Taiwan from 1998 to )* 0)*! " " # $% &'" ( /)*.)* -)*,)* +)* )* ,))+,))-,))/ :6 ;5<=>6?8@ A<BC=:B D:8CB5E F<?C=:B G5>:B Source: MOTC, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2003 and Education According to surveys conducted by MOTC in 1998, 1999, 2001 and 2003, education is also a main factor determining Internet usage. With a higher education level, people with higher information skills own and have easy access to ICTs. The ratio of internet use for graduate students is 97.2% in 2003 (See Table 4). Moreover, according to the Schement s (1995) argument, income served as a predominant factor predicting home telephone penetrate rates. It is no surprise to recognize education as one of the main attributions for a digital divide because education levels determine social status and income levels in a culture emphasizing education level. 11

12 Table 4: The Penetration of Internet Users with Different Levels of Education in Taiwan from 1998 to 2003 Elementary school Junior high Senior high Graduate and under school school College University school % 11.20% 22.00% 45.60% 64.50% 85.70% % 17.00% 31.00% 64.20% 78.80% 91.90% % 30.00% 41.00% 73.00% 84.20% 91.50% % 38.40% 58.70% 80.00% 91.50% 97.20% Figure 4: The Penetration of Internet Users with Different Levels of Education in Taiwan from 1998 to 2003 pnno xno wno vno uno tno sno rno HIJKLIKJ MNKL NJOJPNJPQN RS T UM QOJPVI m^]de]\y`abccx k[gly^`g\_ jcxxyhy iy[gc^ bghb `abccx fe[gc^ bghb `abccx qno pno no pxxw pxxx qnnp qnnr WXYZY[\]^_ `abccx ][d e[dy^ Dealing with the Digital Divide The Taiwanese government began to notice the digital divide as Taiwan encountered an ICT development bottleneck in The Institute of Information Industry (III), the think tank of the government, developed a progress report arguing that the Taiwanese government should work on enhancing infrastructure and providing universal access. In the meantime, in the paper, entitled Bridging the digital divide: the government s duty and strategy, Lin (2003) suggested that in order to narrow down the digital divide, it is crucial to strengthen the infrastructure and provide universal access. The author proposes three phases to bridge the digital divide. The first step involves building the necessary infrastructure in every area. The second suggestion is that the government should provide ICT training programs for those who do not 12

13 have ICT knowledge and skill to access to digital technology. Finally, the government should make sure everyone, especially minorities, can have access to technology (See Figure 4). Figure 5: Executive Sequences for Bridging the Digital Divide Build up single plan and management mechanism Foundation Policy Estimate the gap of digital divide and evaluate the benefit of the project Provide ICTs Infrastructure Promotion and application E-government service and promotion project Enhancing education and training measurements Individual and Family application Enterprise application Figure 5: Executive Sequences for Bridging the Digital Divide Cited from Bridging the digital divide: The government s duty and strategy by Lin, F. (2003).National Policy Quarterly 2(1), p. 50 Information and Internet Organization and Policy in Taiwan The Taiwanese government integrates itself and the private sector to boost ICT development. Several organizations are commissioned by the government to promote ICTs. The Institute of Information Industry (III), Seednet, National Information Infrastructure Enterprise Promotion Associate (NIIA) are briefly described below: The III, founded by government and private organization in 1979, is one of the most important organizations that promote information technology development in Taiwan. III is executing several important ICT projects including E-Taiwan that will be discussed later. Seednet, an important ISP provider, also conducts several significant government projects such 13

14 as E-Government Portal Site in This project helps government serve and connect with 1,500 government organizations which use networks with single sign-on. The purpose of the E-Government Portal is to help the people get used to ICTs with the convenience of single sign-in and thus narrowing down the digital divide. NIIA is the first non-profit organization in Taiwan to improve its nnational information infrastructure and promote advanced applications. In addition, one of its objectives is to connect government s policies and private sector s technology to promote ICTs and national information infrastructure development. E-Taiwan Project E-Taiwan project, a six years National Development Plan, was submitted by the Science and Technology Advisor Group (STAG) in The purpose of this project is to promote the application of the Internet to establish Taiwan as an E-oriented and high-tech island. The goal of E-Taiwan Project is to reach 6 million broadband users in The main propositions are listed as follows (Also, see Figure 5) 1. Execute electronic-society program initiative and execute a program to improve infrastructure. 2. Provide the government with electronic service to make the Internet closer to life and thus motivate people s access to Internet. 3. Simplify online trade convenience and develop a barrier-free Internet user environment for everyone to use easily. 4. Set up the Internet in libraries in every community and provide free training programs on Internet skills. Bring the internet into rural areas at affordable prices. 5. Subsidize funds to support ICT training programs for students in elementary and middle schools in rural areas, low-income household labors, farmers and aborigines. 14

15 Figure 6: The gold of E-Taiwan Program Source: cited from With a series of programs promoting the use of ICTs, it will be possible for Taiwan to enhance the Internet application ability for every citizen and thus reverse the crisis of the digital divide into a new digital opportunity. Furthermore, it will help Taiwan become a Green Silicon Island, not only through eliminating the digital divide but also narrowing down the gap between Taiwan and developed countries in terms of a global digital divide. Policymaking in Telecommunications Companies Most of the surveys for Internet use emphasize Internet users rather than the non-users. This leads telecommunication policies to focus on the needs of the Internet users and ignore the needs of non-users. Telecommunication policymakers place more emphasis on market expansion and upgrading the Internet infrastructure. In addition, in order to expand the market share to obtain more profit, private telecommunication companies pay attention only to urban areas. Both these phenomena worsen the digital divide by neglecting non-users in rural areas. Therefore, telecommunication policymakers should establish different policies based on the needs of 15

16 Internet users and non-users, respectively. In response to the needs for Internet users, they are more likely to concern the efficiency of ICTs, whereas regarding the need for non-users, they need to be motivated to access the Internet first, be educated in the skills of using the Internet and then be provided the affordability to access ICTs. In order to minimize the global digital divide, the first step is to enhance technology access and technology use within the country. Regulation, ownership of telecommunications companies and the intense competition could be the chief consideration for new telecommunications media access and use, quality and cost. Previous theoretical and empirical work and research found that deregulation, privatization and competition are considered as useful policies to minimize the digital divide within country. For example, Gutiérrez & Berg (2000) indicate that competition, deregulation and privatization could improve performance and efficiency of telecommunications and lines of service. Similarly, based on data from 30 countries in Africa and Latin American, Wallsten (2001) found that privatization and deregulation enhanced the performance of the telecommunications company. It is important to note that according to the sample of 26 developing countries, Petrazzini & Clark (1996) proposed that compared to the effects of privatization, deregulation is more beneficial. Furthermore, a higher intensity of competition in the telecommunications market could supplement the market by lowering prices as well as providing more diverse services (Guillén & Suárez, 2004). The results of research conducted by Fischer (1992) sported this idea and found that family income and intensity of competition could affect media use. Therefore, lowering prices for Internet access and opening up competition in the local loop are principles to bridge the digital divide. 16

17 Universal Service & Equal Access The slogan one system, one policy, universal service was proposed by the president of AT&T Theodore Vail in Universal service at that time indicated that the competing telephone exchanges should be connected to each other, but it did not consider household telephone penetration. Later, however, universal service was viewed as the concept of universal access to basic services to make sure a telephone is in every household. In recent times, dramatic technological advances and structural, universal service promote universal access to ICT services such as the Internet and makes these technologies widely available and affordable for rural people and the urban poor across the world (Schement, 1995). In order to achieve universal access, especially in rural access, Schement and Tate (2003) argued that there are three dimensions to carefully consider connectivity, capability and content. First, regarding connectivity, universal access to internet requires Internet devices such as a personal computer, telephone or an Internet service provider (ISP) in every household. However, these are not so easily achieved. There are still a lot of problems that need to be resolved, such as unaffordable prices and a lack of infrastructure. Therefore, public libraries play a critical role in providing connectivity (Schement & Tate, 2003). Second, concerning capability, in the information society, there are still some people who are lacking of information literacy. It is important to enhance people s access to ICT services. Finally, regarding content from the Internet, although profusion of information is available on the Internet, content is not only a paradox but also does not offer equal access for each individual user (Schement & Tate, 2003). It is important to provide more useful information for every user to make the Internet more of a reality and thus motivate people s access to the Internet. 17

18 E-Rate The digital divide refers to a gap not only between those with and those without access to information technologies, but also between those with and those without knowledge required to understand how to use information technology. Therefore, increasing knowledge on how to use these technologies is also an important dimension to narrow the digital divide, especially in the information society. The Universal Service policy in the U.S. includes the E-Rate which focuses on access instead of service. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 mandated discounts for high-speed connectivity for schools, libraries, and rural health care centers as part of its Universal Service provision. The E-Rate program was conducted to help schools to get wired up in terms of quality and use of technology available to students. Unlike other programs, the E-Rate funding is no longer directly awarded to the carriers. Schools and libraries are responsible for formulating their requests and filing their applications. It is a major transition from the traditional model of universal service with a focus on subsidizing the carrier directly to install facilities or provide services at a reduced price. Similarly, in Taiwan, in order to help K-12 schools access Internet, the Ministry of Education of Taiwan conducted The Information Education Development Project. This project started in July 1997 and will end in June The purpose of this project was to bring the Internet into all campuses and to train all students in access skills to Internet. Therefore, promoting access is not sufficient in bridging the digital divide. It is important to educate individuals in using these technologies and to learn in new ways. Based on policies mentioned above, this could explain that the idea of the digital divide is an important policy concept. 18

19 Conclusion Many people in developing countries, such as Africa, do not have a chance to access basic tools of communication. In order to bridge the global digital divide, global organizations have invested over $210 billion dollars to help developing countries establish telecommunications capacity in the last ten years (Word Bank, 2005). It is important to put in more effort to narrow the gap of the global digital divide and even to eventually close it. Furthermore, there are needs to promote not only access to Internet but also access to broadband services. Telephone subcription, usage of personal computers (PCs) and modems can then be distributed everywhere in the world. A positive development is that computer and Internet use are fast growing in developing countries. Although there are many ways to reduce the global digital divide, there is still room for improvement. In order to ensure an annual growth ratio of ICT usage, it is important to know that beyond economic factors, regulatory, political and sociological variables influence access to ICTs around the world. Furthermore, economic status among world systems, telecommunications policymaking and political regimes also affect the global digital divide. With useful telecommunications policies and improved socioeconomic factors, developing countries could have faster growth rates of telecommunications development than developed countries, such that developing countries may have the ability to digitally leapfrog the developed world. Optimistic statements such as a smaller, more open world with a minimum global digital divide can be expected soon (Tapscott & Caston 1993, p.313). 19

20 Reference Bauer, J. M., Berne, M., & Maitland, C. F. (2002). Internet access in the European Union and in the United States. Telematics and Informatics, 19 (2), pp Fisher, C. S. (1992). America Calling: A Social History of the Telephone to Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Gutiérrez, L. G., & Berg, S. (2000). Telecommunications Liberalization and Regulatory Governance: Lessons from Latin America. Telecommunications Policy, 24, pp MOTC (1999). Survey report on people s Internet us. Taipei: MOTC. MOTC (2001). Survey report on people s Internet us. Taipei: MOTC. MOTC (2003). Survey report on people s Internet us. Taipei: MOTC. MOTC (2005). Survey report on people s Internet us. Taipei: MOTC. Norris, P. (2001). Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide. New York: Cambridge University Press. Petrazzini, B. A., & Theodore H. C. (1996). Costs and Benefits of Telecommunications Liberalization in Developing Countries Paper presented at the conference Liberalizing Telecommunications, Institute for International Economics, Washington, D.C. Schement, J. R. (1995). Beyond universal service: Characteristics of Americans without telephones, Telecommunications Policy. 19(6), pp Schement, J. R., & Tate, M. A. (2003). Rural America in the Digital Age: A preliminary assessment of the state of the information/telecommunications infrastructure in ten counties of North Dakota and Pennsylvania. University Park, PA: Institute for Information Policy, College of Communications, School of Information Sciences and Technologies, The Pennsylvania State University. 20

21 Schement, J. R., Pressman, R., and Povich, L. (1995). Transcending access toward a new universal service. Universal Service in Context: A Multidisciplinary Perspective, Communications Media Center, New York Law School, December. Tapscott, D., & Caston, A. (1993). Paradigm Shift: The New Promise of Information Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill. Wallsten, S J. (2001). An econometric analysis of telecom competition, privatization, and regulation in Africa and Latin America. Journal of Industrial Economics, 49, pp World Band News (2005/02). World Bank highlights role of private and public sectors In Closing Digital Divide. Retrieved October, 2005, from K:34467~pagePK:34370~piPK:34424~theSitePK:4607,00.html Reference-Chinese Lin, F. (2003). Bridging the digital divide: The government s duty and strategy. Ú. National Policy Quarterly, 2(1), pp