Transportation Innovation and Infrastructure: Key to Progress, Civilization, and Prosperity

Transcription

1 Transportation Innovation and Infrastructure: Key to Progress, Civilization, and Prosperity Gregory F. Rehmke EconomicThinking.org (Some overheads from Randal O Toole, author of The Best Laid Plans and Gridlock)

2 EconomicsinaCloud.org Agriculture & Transportation Agriculture and food safety are central to any society. No food; no society. Transportation is key to agriculture and food security. U.S. agriculture depends on roads, rail, and shipping (ports, canals, rivers) Just and efficient transportation infrastructure and policy requires sound economic foundations. Economic history of transportation across the United States, and federal policy from ports to canals & rail.

3 Federal Transportation Policies Shipping: rivers, canals, ports (Jones Act again...) Highways & bridges. Funding formula (18c to 3c, devolve to states). Trains and rail: federal regulation for commercial rail. Amtrak. Airplanes, airports, air traffic control system. Uber Air (FAA bans) drones, flying cars Oil transport: tanker, barge, pipeline, railcars, big trucks. Issues: pollution (highways, airplanes, rail, shipping) gas and noise. Federal role? Bridges on state borders? Funding, Contests...

4 Ten Case Ideas 1. Reform CAFE standards (or RFS-Ethanol mandate) 2. Reform harbor or shipping policy 3. End the (Federal) space (transportation) program (SLS) 4. Repeal the gas tax/highway trust fund 5. Reform freight rail policy 6. Private toll roads Enable/encourage congestion pricing! 7. Air traffic control (FAA/AirUber) 8. Reform Amtrak passenger services 9. Increase highway infrastructure spending 10. End subsides for high speed rail programs (light rail too...)

5 1. Reform CAFE standards Ten Case Ideas ECONOMY-STANDARDS-ARE-A-COSTLY-MISTAKE-1

6 Ten Case Ideas Renewable Fuels Standard (RFS) Renewable Fuels Standard (RFS) have: Failed to meet mandated volumes of advanced biofuels. Consumed approximately 40 percent of the nation s corn crop, yet ethanol only equates to 18 days worth of oil-based fuel consumption. The blend wall puts a ceiling on how much ethanol can be used in the fuel supply without damaging older engines. And the various ecological and environmental concerns with growing more corn.

7 Ten Case Ideas 2. Reform harbor or shipping policy -reform/end Merchant Marine Act (Jones Act) The Merchant Marine Act of 1920 (P.L ), also known as the Jones Act, is a United States federal statute that provides for the promotion and maintenance of the American merchant marine.[1] Among other purposes, the law regulates maritime commerce in U.S. waters and between U.S. ports.

8 Ten Case Ideas 2. Reform harbor or shipping policy -reform/end Merchant Marine Act (Jones Act)...European nations have turned to the sea rather than the road to transport goods across the continent. In fact, over 40% of Europe s domestic freight is shipped along socalled motorways of the sea. In the US, a measly 2% of domestic freight distributed among the lower forty-eight states travels by water, even though half the population lives near the coast. year-old-american-law-helps-makeyour-commute-miserable/

9 Ten Case Ideas 3. End the space program (SLS) ULA vs. SpaceX ULA a company formed by Lockheed Martin and Boeing The expected ULA launch prices for 2018 and 2019 are much lower at $202 million and $216 million, respectively. However, those amounts are still more than double the $83 million and the $96.5 million the Air Force is paying SpaceX to launch GPS satellites those fiscal years.

10 Some Fun Transportation Hstory Contests! (Longitude, Lindberg, XPrize, LunarXPrize) Vanderbilt vs. Collins (private vs. govt. subsidized steamships) J.J. Hill s Great Northern Railroad vs. E.H. Harriman s Union Pacific E C O N O M I C T H I N K I N G The Economics of Space Exploration Contests, Entrepreneurship, and Special Interests in Space Macinac Center Debate Workshps Space Topic Study Guide October, 2011 The Wright Brothers vs. Samuel Langley R100 vs. RI01 (Private vs. British govt. airships) Can we return to the Moon for just $30 million? Though a fraction of total funds needed to land a rover on the Moon, the Google Lunar X PRIZE contest has inspired over dozen teams to begin design and development, and assisted their efforts to raise funds for lunar exploration. The Google Lunar X PRIZE offers $30 million to the first privately funded teams to safely land a robot on the surface of the Moon, have that robot travel 500 meters over the lunar surface, and send video, images and data back to the Earth. (Read about the moon exploration contest at: Contests and private funding have a long history of enabling exploration across land, sea, air, and now outer space. Dava Sobel s Longitude tells of the British government s 20,000 prize to discover a way to measure longitude, to increase ocean exploration. The Ansari X PRIZE was modeled after the Orteig Prize, won by Charles Lindbergh in 1927 for being the first to fly non-stop from New York to Paris, and mirrored the hundreds of aviation incentive prizes offered early in the 20th century that helped create today's $300 billion commercial aviation industry. Dr. Peter Diamandis designed the prize after reading The Spirit of St. Louis about the winning of the Orteig Prize.... The Ansari family [became] the title sponsors of the first X PRIZE, jumpstarting 26 Scaled Composite s SpaceShipOne wins the Ansari X Prize teams from 7 different nations to pursue their passions by competing for the prize. Those 26 teams combined spent more than $100 million to win the prize. Since SpaceShipOne won the prize, there has been more than $1.5 billion dollars in public and private expenditure in support of the private spaceflight industry. space.xprize.org/ansari-x-prize Arrayed against the entrepreneurs and enterprises of the New Space Industry, are the cost-plus contractors of the Old Space industry. NASA s just-announced deep space rocket, with its $35 billion Lunar X Prize competitors price tag, would be built cost-plus space contractors. To get Congressional funding NASA and lobbyists will try to undermine lessexpensive New Space launch systems and space exploration projects. NASA and the Old Space contractors are accustomed to cost-overruns (and profits from cost-overruns): costs that include lobbying Congress for projects like the new monster rocket (see page 8). Space exploration s future is now being debated from high school to Congress. Charles Lindberg wins the Orteig Prize for crossing the Atlantic. The Economics of Space Exploration 1

11 3. End the space program (SLS) (related: federal transport contests) Ten Case Ideas E C O N O M I C T H I N K I N G The Economics of Space Exploration Contests, Entrepreneurship, and Special Interests in Space Macinac Center Debate Workshps Space Topic Study Guide October, 2011 Can we return to the Moon for just $30 million? Though a fraction of total funds needed to land a rover on the Moon, the Google Lunar X PRIZE contest has inspired over dozen teams to begin design and development, and assisted their efforts to raise funds for lunar exploration. The Google Lunar X PRIZE offers $30 million to the first privately funded teams to safely land a robot on the surface of the Moon, have that robot travel 500 meters over the lunar surface, and send video, images and data back to the Earth. (Read about the moon exploration contest at: Contests and private funding have a long history of enabling exploration across land, sea, air, and now outer space. Dava Sobel s Longitude tells of the British government s 20,000 prize to discover a way to measure longitude, to increase ocean exploration. The Ansari X PRIZE was modeled after the Orteig Prize, won by Charles Lindbergh in 1927 for being the first to fly non-stop from New York to Paris, and mirrored the hundreds of aviation incentive prizes offered early in the 20th century that helped create today's $300 billion commercial aviation industry. Dr. Peter Diamandis designed the prize after reading The Spirit of St. Louis about the winning of the Orteig Prize.... The Ansari family [became] the title sponsors of the first X PRIZE, jumpstarting 26 Scaled Composite s SpaceShipOne wins the Ansari X Prize teams from 7 different nations to pursue their passions by competing for the prize. Those 26 teams combined spent more than $100 million to win the prize. Since SpaceShipOne won the prize, there has been more than $1.5 billion dollars in public and private expenditure in support of the private spaceflight industry. space.xprize.org/ansari-x-prize Arrayed against the entrepreneurs and enterprises of the New Space Industry, are the cost-plus contractors of the Old Space industry. NASA s just-announced deep space rocket, with its $35 billion Lunar X Prize competitors price tag, would be built cost-plus space contractors. To get Congressional funding NASA and lobbyists will try to undermine lessexpensive New Space launch systems and space exploration projects. NASA and the Old Space contractors are accustomed to cost-overruns (and profits from cost-overruns): costs that include lobbying Congress for projects like the new monster rocket (see page 8). Space exploration s future is now being debated from high school to Congress. Charles Lindberg wins the Orteig Prize for crossing the Atlantic. The Economics of Space Exploration 1

12 Ten Case Ideas 4. Repeal the gas tax/highway trust fund reduce from 18 to 3 cents/mi and shift highway management to states. Or shift to public/private partnership. Or, pay per mile (Oregon test) Congestion pricing. Compensate for noise and pollution

13 Ten Case Ideas 5. Reform freight rail policy -- allow states safety inspection on oil trains. -- reduce/increase/change federal regulations apnewsbreak-thousands-of-defectsfound-on-oil-train-routes

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15 6. Private toll roads Ten Case Ideas -- enable/encourage more public/private partnerships. Reduce regulations. -- streamline environmental approvals.

16 (7). Air traffic regulation: AirUber Ten Case Ideas -- let Uber-like firms connect personal airplanes with people who want to fly.

17 (7.) Air traffic control Ten Case Ideas Let s celebrate--not regulate--flying cars! Now a wide range of companies including plane maker Airbus SE, ride-sharing specialists Uber Technologies Inc., and a startup backed by Intel Corp. are racing to turn the concept into reality... Some designs are already flying in testing areas; others are set to take to the air in the next few years. If the technologists have their way, the vehicles will start zipping amid skyscrapers early next decade. Still, there s ample reason to doubt such a timetable. Many underlying technologies for these concept vehicles remain unproven, and regulators haven t decided how such air traffic would be managed. A3 s first prototype, the Vahana a fully automated, pilotless vehicle could take to the sky before year-end,

18 Draft ET Transportation Policy Flyer Economics, History, Politics, and Federal Transportation Policy Space T r a n s p o r t Economic Thinking Workshop Date & Time: Workshops are often 9:30am - 4:00pm or 1:30-8:30pm Location: Each year 15 to 20 Economic Thinking are held around the country. Cost: $25 per student ($15 for siblings). No charge for parents or college students. To Register: local host or Greg Rehmke: grehmke@gmail.com Gregory Rehmke, Program Director, Economic Thinking. grehmke@gmail.com Join us for a workshop on the economics and history of federal transportation policy. In early America the federal government funded canals, steamships, and railroads in competition with privately funded firms. Federal funding tends to be quickly politicized, and regulations captured by existing firms (called crony capitalism). Federal funding of interstate freeways begins in the Eisenhower Administration, to enable movement of tanks and other military vehicles. Federal transportation policy encompasses far more than roads and rail. Randall O Toole notes that state and federal roads were once funded by gas taxes, so people driving on roads paid for them. Later Congress began diverting Gregory F. Rehmke Economic Thinking Leverage and Apply Public Policy Research and Debate Debate students develop research and speaking skills as well as gain in-depth knowledge of chosen public policy topics. This year s Stoa policy topic on federal transportation policy will encourage students to research a wide range of federal policies from shipping, highways and bridges, railways and light rail, to airline, airport, and air traffic control systems. Plus federal rocket regulations and programs for transportation to space! Highway congestion costs the U.S. some $124 billion each year. Traffic jams cost U.S. drivers an average of $1,200 a year in wasted fuel and time... Subway, light rail, river, and airspace congestion and problems cost billions more. Economists argue that much federal transportation policy is misguided and gains from reforms would be dramatic. This year Stoa clubs have a great opportunity to engage the realworld transportation policy debate by networking with think tanks working on local, state, and federal transportation. policy reform. Students can earn high school or college economics credit for their research and policy engagement, and will have opportunities to earn income through research, consulting, giving speeches, and hosting local workshops on transportation reform. Other opportunities for Stoa students, parents, and alumni include starting (LFA) debate clubs at local Christian schools and sending debaters to World Schools tournaments. For more information, Greg Rehmke: grehmke@gmail.com Homeschool debaters to World Schools tournaments in Europe. A new think tank for the Stoa topic! ET regional and online workshops EconomicsinaCloud.org econ4life.com Homeschool coached private school debate: Economic Thinking is a program of E Pluribus Unum Films, a 501(c)3 non-profit organization Fifteenth Avenue West, Seattle, Washington (206) GRehmke@gmail.com

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20 Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reform its transportation policy.! Transportation Infrastructure Reforming Federal Policy Message to Debaters on the Economics of the Debate Topic by Randal O Toole This topic is really two different questions: 1. Should the United States substantially increase its transportation infrastructure investment? and 2. Should that investment be made by the federal government? The study of economics can help answer both of these questions. Economists believe that the best incentives are created when users pay for the full cost of the things they use, and producers are allowed to profit from the things they sell. The prices people pay give them incentives not to overuse the goods while the profits producers make give them incentives to produce more or to find lower-cost ways of producing. The fact that users pay the full cost show that they believe the things they use are worth producing. While some people view profit as a dirty word, the advantage of a user-pay system is that other people or businesses can only make a profit if they provide you with something you want at a price you are willing to pay. If you don t want it, or you are not willing to pay what they are asking, they don t make a profit, which gives producers an incentive to reduce costs and make things people do want. The user-pay system can break down if a producer has a monopoly. Then they will tend to charge more for whatever they are producing, giving them huge profits but creating a shortage for the good. For example, the owner of the first New York City subway earned large profits from subway operations in the early part of the 20th century, but subway riders complained that the cars were overcrowded. The company didn t want to expand capacity because it would increase its costs without greatly increasing its revenues. Finally, another company was allowed to build a competing subway line and crowding declined. continued on next page Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially increase its transportation infrastructure investment in the United States. Economics? Economics deals with the allocation of scarce resources. The term eco comes from the Greek word for house and the term nomos comes from the Greek word for management, and the first economists were household managers. Today, the term economics has expanded to include the management of resources from the local to the worldwide level. Incentives Perhaps the most important concept economists have learned is that incentives count. If you give someone direction to do one thing, but give them incentives to do something else, they are more likely to follow their incentives than the direction. Congress has often given government agencies incentives that conflict with their missions; the agencies soon begin to follow their incentives rather than their mission, a phenomenon known as mission creep. ECONOMICS OF FEDERAL TRANSPORTATION POLICY SEPTEMBER, 2012! PAGE 1

21 ! Transportation Infrastructure Reforming Federal Policy Message to Debaters on the Economics of the Debate Topic by Randal O Toole This topic is really two different questions: 1. Should the United States substantially increase its transportation infrastructure investment? and 2. Should that investment be made by the federal government? The study of economics can help answer both of these questions. Economists believe that the best incentives are created when users pay for the full cost of the things they use, and producers are allowed to profit from the things they sell. The prices people pay give them incentives not to overuse the goods while the profits producers make give them incentives to produce more or to find lower-cost ways of producing. The fact that users pay the full cost show that they believe the things they use are worth producing. While some people view profit as a dirty word, the advantage of a user-pay system is that other people or businesses can only make a profit if they provide you with something you want at a price you are willing to pay. If you don t want it, or you are not willing to pay what they are asking, they don t make a profit, which gives producers an incentive to reduce costs and make things people do want. The user-pay system can break down if a producer has a monopoly. Then they will tend to charge more for whatever they are producing, giving them huge profits but creating a shortage for the good. For example, the owner of the first New York City subway earned large profits from subway operations in the early part of the 20th century, but subway riders complained that the cars were overcrowded. The company didn t want to expand capacity because it would increase its costs without greatly increasing its revenues. Finally, another company was allowed to build a competing subway line and crowding declined. continued on next page Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially increase its transportation infrastructure investment in the United States. Economics? Economics deals with the allocation of scarce resources. The term eco comes from the Greek word for house and the term nomos comes from the Greek word for management, and the first economists were household managers. Today, the term economics has expanded to include the management of resources from the local to the worldwide level. Incentives Perhaps the most important concept economists have learned is that incentives count. If you give someone direction to do one thing, but give them incentives to do something else, they are more likely to follow their incentives than the direction. Congress has often given government agencies incentives that conflict with their missions; the agencies soon begin to follow their incentives rather than their mission, a phenomenon known as mission creep. ECONOMICS OF FEDERAL TRANSPORTATION POLICY SEPTEMBER, 2012! PAGE 1

22 The Next Infrastructure Agenda / Summit on Infrastructure and Transportation AtlanticLIVE

23 ! Transportation Infrastructure Reforming Federal Policy Message to Debaters on the Economics of the Debate Topic by Randal O Toole This topic is really two different questions: 1. Should the United States substantially increase its transportation infrastructure investment? and 2. Should that make a profit if they provide you with something you want at a price you are willing to pay. If you don t want it, or you are not willing to pay what they are asking, they don t make a profit, which gives producers an incentive to reduce Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially increase its transportation infrastructure investment in the United States. Economics? Economics deals with the allocation of scarce resources. The term eco comes from the Greek word for house and the term nomos comes from the Greek word for management, and the first economists were household managers. Today, the term economics has expanded to include the management of resources from the local to the worldwide level. Incentives Perhaps the most important concept economists have learned is that incentives count. If you give some- Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially reform its transportation policy.

24 Part Two: Economics of Federal Transportation Infrastructure Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Costs in Transportation Scarcity -- we live in a world of limited resources: limited goods and services. Transportation infrastructure is scarce. Land for roads has alternative uses, and money for construction does too. Economists call this opportunity cost.! Transportation Infrastructure Reforming Federal Policy Message to Debaters on the Economics of the Debate Topic by Randal O Toole This topic is really two different questions: 1. Should the United States substantially increase its transportation infrastructure investment? and 2. Should that investment be made by the federal government? The study of economics can help answer both of these questions. Economists believe that the best incentives are created when users pay for the full cost of the things they use, and producers are allowed to profit from the things they sell. The prices people pay give them incentives not to overuse the goods while the profits producers make give them incentives to produce more or to find lower-cost ways of producing. The fact that users pay the full cost show that they believe the things they use are worth producing. While some people view profit as a dirty word, the advantage of a user-pay system is that other people or businesses can only make a profit if they provide you with something you want at a price you are willing to pay. If you don t want it, or you are not willing to pay what they are asking, they don t make a profit, which gives producers an incentive to reduce costs and make things people do want. The user-pay system can break down if a producer has a monopoly. Then they will tend to charge more for whatever they are producing, giving them huge profits but creating a shortage for the good. For example, the owner of the first New York City subway earned large profits from subway operations in the early part of the 20th century, but subway riders complained that the cars were overcrowded. The company didn t want to expand capacity because it would increase its costs without greatly increasing its revenues. Finally, another company was allowed to build a competing subway line and crowding declined. continued on next page Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially increase its transportation infrastructure investment in the United States. Economics? Economics deals with the allocation of scarce resources. The term eco comes from the Greek word for house and the term nomos comes from the Greek word for management, and the first economists were household managers. Today, the term economics has expanded to include the management of resources from the local to the worldwide level. Incentives Perhaps the most important concept economists have learned is that incentives count. If you give someone direction to do one thing, but give them incentives to do something else, they are more likely to follow their incentives than the direction. Congress has often given government agencies incentives that conflict with their missions; the agencies soon begin to follow their incentives rather than their mission, a phenomenon known as mission creep. ECONOMICS OF FEDERAL TRANSPORTATION POLICY SEPTEMBER, 2012! PAGE 1

25 Competition, Prices, and the Discovery Process What is the best way to make a hamburger?! Transportation Infrastructure Reforming Federal Policy Message to Debaters on the Economics of the Debate Topic by Randal O Toole This topic is really two different questions: 1. Should the United States substantially increase its transportation infrastructure investment? and 2. Should that investment be made by the federal government? The study of economics can help answer both of these questions. Economists believe that the best incentives are created when users pay for the full cost of the things they use, and producers are allowed to profit from the things they sell. The prices people pay give them incentives not to overuse the goods while the profits producers make give them incentives to produce more or to find lower-cost ways of producing. The fact that users pay the full cost show that they believe the things they use are worth producing. While some people view profit as a dirty word, the advantage of a user-pay system is that other people or businesses can only make a profit if they provide you with something you want at a price you are willing to pay. If you don t want it, or you are not willing to pay what they are asking, they don t make a profit, which gives producers an incentive to reduce costs and make things people do want. The user-pay system can break down if a producer has a monopoly. Then they will tend to charge more for whatever they are producing, giving them huge profits but creating a shortage for the good. For example, the owner of the first New York City subway earned large profits from subway operations in the early part of the 20th century, but subway riders complained that the cars were overcrowded. The company didn t want to expand capacity because it would increase its costs without greatly increasing its revenues. Finally, another company was allowed to build a competing subway line and crowding declined. continued on next page Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially increase its transportation infrastructure investment in the United States. Economics? Economics deals with the allocation of scarce resources. The term eco comes from the Greek word for house and the term nomos comes from the Greek word for management, and the first economists were household managers. Today, the term economics has expanded to include the management of resources from the local to the worldwide level. Incentives Perhaps the most important concept economists have learned is that incentives count. If you give someone direction to do one thing, but give them incentives to do something else, they are more likely to follow their incentives than the direction. Congress has often given government agencies incentives that conflict with their missions; the agencies soon begin to follow their incentives rather than their mission, a phenomenon known as mission creep. ECONOMICS OF FEDERAL TRANSPORTATION POLICY SEPTEMBER, 2012! PAGE 1 The Planners vs. the Searchers In a market system where users pay, entrepreneurs search for solutions; search for goods and services people will pay for. Searchers innovate: they create new solutions. What is the best way to transport people from home to work and back?

26 Transportation Congestion $200 billion wasted annually in freight transportation delays. $70 billion wasted fuel each year. Best solution? Planners vs. searchers...

27 Costs of Traffic Jams (congestion) In 2011: An extra 4.8 billion hours on the road and 1.9 billion more gallons of gas -- because of congestion. -- Texas Transportation Institute. Congestion cost: $101 billion. Traffic jams cost U.S. drivers an average of $1,200 a year in wasted fuel and time (Traffic Jams Cost U.S. Drivers $1,200 a Year: Study, 2/20/2017, USNews) Since 1982 U.S. population up from 232 million to 326 million. In 1980: 122 million cars on U.S. roads and highways. Now some 264 million cars in US. Expansion of highways since 1980? Highway construction in most of the U.S. has not kept pace with increase in highway users. Why?

28 Transportation Innovation What is the best way to transport people from home to work and back? Maybe via electrons? Skype and Google Hangouts video meetings. Or transport through pneumatic tubes?

29 The Chicago pneumatic tube service

30 Pneumatic tube transport for people?

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34 Why use heavy cars and trucks to deliver goods? 90% of the energy for shipping goods or shopping is used to move the car or truck. Why not just send the good?

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36 Germany is producing zeppelins again. Transportation by highway, rail, by air, or... More than 70 years after the... Hindenburg disaster Latest airship was guided out of the hangar doors [in 2008] to make its maiden test flight.

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38 Description of a very high speed transit (VHST) system in its own rarefied atmosphere in evacuated tubes in underground tunnels. Most cases considered took less time to go coast-to-coast: 21 minutes... driven by, electromagnetic (EM) waves. energy...

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41 Constitutional: the Constitution is quite clear that it is the responsibility of the federal government to facilitate interstate commerce. National security: federal government has a vital role to play in maintaining our national economic security by investing in the infrastructure that is vital to commerce.

42 More Urban Mass Transit? Best transportation for cities? Mass transit? Light rail? City buses? Transportation options city communities? NYC taxis and informal taxis Why not jitneys?

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46 Air Pollution & Driving Trends Percent of Urban Driving 50 Automotive Air Pollution CO NOx PM-10 VOC Driving

47 4,500 Energy Consumption by Urban Transportation 4,000 BTUs Per Passenger Mile 3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1, Subway/ Cars Cars Light Bus Light Prius Elevated 2026 Today rail Trucks

48 gridlock-and-growth-the-effect

49 Energy Consumption by Mode 4,500 4,000 BTUs Per Passenger Mile 3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1, Intercity Intercity Amtrak Rail Urban Light Transit Bus Autos Transit Cars Trucks Buses

50 Amortized Capital Cost Per Passenger Mile Cents Per Passenger Mile Rural Urban Moderate- HSR California Interstates Interstates Speed Rail Average HSR

51 Grams of CO2 Emissions Per Passenger Mile Bus Auto High-Speed Rail Air Low-Speed Rail

52 DC to NYC Mode Time Fare Acela 2:50 $99 Regional 3:15 49 Bus 4:15 20 Air 1:00 119

53 Fewer than 8% of Americans work in downtowns Fewer than 1% of Americans live in downtowns

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55 Who benefits & who pays?

56 Distinguish inputs from outputs

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61 Transit Subsidies, Ridership, and Driving Transit Subsidies Percent of 1987 Value Miles of Urban Driving 90 Transit Trips

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66 Future Auto Energy Efficiencies 4,000 3,500 BTUs Per Passenger Mile 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,

67 Is this a real problem?

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70 For more information: Blog: ti.org Papers: cato.org americandreamcoalition.org