OPERATIONS IN A NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, AND CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT

Transcription

1 Appendix OPERATIONS IN A NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, AND CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT NBC weapons produce casualties and disrupt operations. Platoons must be prepared to operate in an NBC environment during any operation. This appendix addresses nuclear, biological, and chemical defense; mission-oriented protective postures; and detection, monitoring, and unmasking procedures. D CONTENTS Page Section I. Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Defense Fundamentals Contamination Avoidance D-1 Protection D-2 Decontamination Section Il. Nuclear Defense D-3 Defensive Actions Before a Nuclear Attack D-3 Defensive Actions During a Nuclear Attack D-5 Defensive Actions After a Nuclear Attack D-5 Nuclear First Aid D-5 Radiological Contamination D-7 Section Ill. Chemical Defense Defensive Actions Before a Chemical Attack D-8 Defensive Actions During a Chemical Attack D-8 Defensive Actions After a Chemical Attack D-8 Section IV. Biological Defense Detection D-8 Biological Defensive Actions D-9 Section V. Mission-Oriented Protective Posture MOPP Levels D-9 Mask-Only Posture D-12 D-0

2 CONTENTS (continued) Page Procedures Before Attack D-13 Supervision of MOPP D-14 Section VI. Detection, Monitoring, and Unmasking Procedures Chemical Agent Detector Kit (M256/M256A1) D-14 Dosimeter (lm93/ud) D-15 Supervise Radiological Monitoring and Survey D-15 Initiate Unmasking Procedures D-16 Supervise Tactical Dosimetry Operations D-16 Section VII. Decontamination Methods of Decontamination D-17 Techniques of Decontamination D-18 Section I. Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Defense Fundamentals To defend against NBC weapons, soldiers must apply the three fundamentals of NBC defense contamination avoidance, protection, and decontamination. See FM for a general discussion of avoidance measures and FM 3-3 for a detailed discussion. CONTAMINATION AVOIDANCE The first fundamental of de- for protection. Therefore, they fense against NBC weapons is must contamination avoidance. If Ž Take passive measures. Use soldiers can avoid contam- concealment, so the enemy can ination, they decrease the need not find you, or disperse so you D-1

3 make a poor target. You can also harden your position by improving its cover. Ž Detect and identify hazards. Monitor for contamination; reconnoiter and survey specific areas to determine contamination status. Correct identification of the type of agent will give intelligence information as to enemy intentions. Also, it gives the platoon an idea of what type of decontamination support is required. As an example, if a Vulcan platoon finds itself attacked by a nonpersistent agent such as GB, the platoon can expect that the enemy will follow up the chemical attack with a conventional ground or air attack in the near future. If the agent is identified as a nonpersistent agent, the harmful effects of the agent will weather to non-threat levels in minutes to hours. There is no need to request decontamination from decontamination units if attacked by nonpersistent agents. The correct action would be a hasty spray down of gross amounts of contamination with on board M-11s, weathering of the agents, and periodical checking to see if any agent is present in threat level concentrations. This checking is done with M256 kits and confirmed by unit unmasking procedures. In a nonpersistent agent attack the unit may only have to remain in MOPP 4 for 30 minutes or less. Ž Use the NBC warning and reporting system. When a hazard is detected, pass the alarm locally. Mark the contamination and warn others by using the standard NATO warning and reporting system. Ž Limit contamination spread. Cover equipment vital to mission accomplishment, using readily available material. Restrict personnel movement in the contaminated area. Ž Move from the contaminated area when the mission allows. This reduces the overall contamination hazard; however, carefully avoid spreading contamination during movement. PROTECTION The second fundamental of de- avoided. Protection is available fense against NBC weapons is for personnel and selected protection. It is required when equipment. See FM 3-4 for further contamination cannot be details. D-2

4 DECONTAMINATION The third fundamental of de- rial. The extensive time and lofense against NBC weapons is gistical support needed to perdecontamination. It is the reduc- form detailed decontamination tion of the contamination hazard mandates avoiding contaminaby removal or neutralization of tion, if possible. Further details hazardous levels of NBC contam- on decontamination are found in ination on personnel and mate- FM 3-5. Section II. Nuclear Defense The nuclear weapon, although tremendously powerful, is not a weapon against which there is no defense. The more you know about nuclear weapons, the more effective you will be on the battlefield. More importantly, the more you know, the greater will be your chances for survival. DEFENSIVE ACTIONS BEFORE A NUCLEAR ATTACK Cover is the beet protection against a nuclear attack. Foxholes, armored vehicles, heavy (for example, concrete, stone, brick) structures, caves, and other underground areas provide excellent protection. Light-skinned and wheeled vehicles offer very little protection. Weapons, individual equipment, clothing, supplies, ammunition, explosives, POL, and other flammables should be protected as much as possible. These items should be secured in one of the protected areas listed above. Nuclear defense levels for possible, likely, and imminent conditions are described in the Nuclear Defense Levels illustration on page D-4. When operating in or crossing radiologically contaminated areas, vehicles should be buttoned up and cargo should be covered. If the mission permits, personnel, equipment, and cargo should be closely monitored to ensure compliance with operational exposure guides. Radiation exposure status should be updated. D-3

5 NUCLEAR DEFENSE LEVELS D-4

6 DEFENSIVE ACTIONS DURING A NUCLEAR ATTACK Immediately get down and pro- passed and debris has stopped tect face until blast waves have falling. Stay calm, check for inpassed and debris has stopped juries, check weapons and falling. Close and shield your equipment for damage, and preeyes, button up, and close sight pare to continue the mission. shields until the blast wave has DEFENSIVE ACTIONS AFTER A NUCLEAR ATTACK Once the attack has ended, out by seeking overhead cover for forward an NBC-1 nuclear report. vehicles, and begin continuous Consolidate and reorganize the monitoring. If the radiation dose air defense positions, improve rate reaches a hazardous level, protection against possible fall- request permission to move. NUCLEAR FIRST AID Various injuries may result as described in the following from nuclear attacks. You must paragraphs. be prepared to administer first aid BLAST INJURIES Damage can range from minor aid treatment will be the same as cuts and broken bones to severe that used for conventional comlacerations and critical damage bat casualties suffering similar to vital organs. In all cases, first- injuries. THERMAL RADIATION INJURIES The intense heat generated by and there will be no scar formaa nuclear detonation burns skin, tion. Second-degree burns, which clothes, and equipment. Injuries resemble a severe sunburn with can be caused by direct exposure, blistering, should be treated as a reflected exposure (from clouds, burn casualty to prevent infecground, et cetera), and from sec- tion. In third-degree burns, the ondary sources, such as burning full thickness of the skin is declothing. These burns are catego- stroyed; the victim should be rized as first, second, and third treated as a burn casualty and degree. First-degree burns should evacuated. heal without special treatment D-5

7 Thermal radiation effects on the eyes fall into two categories: temporary blindness (called dazzle ) and permanent blindness. No matter what the degree of blindness, no first-aid treatment is necessary. Individuals suffering permanent damage can EYE INJURIES only be made as comfortable as possible and evacuated. Individuals who are temporarily blinded will recover unaided with the passage of time, but will require assistance in taking care of themselves until their sight returns. RADIATION Individuals may react differ- to certain dose ranges as shown ently to a given dose of radiation, in the Radiation Doses but, generally, a group of indi- illustration. viduals can be expected to react RADIATION DOSES Dose In Time to Onset of Centigray Symptoms and Percent Fatalities (cgy) of Personnel Affected 0 to 70 Within 24 hours, 5 percent. None 150 Within 6 hours, 5 percent. None 650 Within 2 hours, 100 percent. More than half (latent lethality dose [ll]). in approximately 16 days. 2,000 to Within 5 minutes, 100 percent. More than half 3,000 in approximately 7 days. 6,000 Within 5 minutes, 100 percent. All in 1-2 days 18,000 Immediately, 100 percent. All within 24 hours. Symptoms include vomiting, or mental disorientation, may ocdiarrhea, dry heaving, nausea, cur. At high-dose levels, shock lethargy, depression, and mental and coma may be the early disorientation. At lower dose lev- symptoms. els, incapacitation, a slowing down of the rate of performance Mechanical injuries (broken due to a loss of physical mobility bones, internal injuries, et cetera) D-6

8 identify casualties who have re- ceived a dose of radiation and the amount of radiation, if known. and burns are much more serious when the victim has also received even minor doses of radiation. Every effort should be made to RADIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION Platoons exposed to radiation must identify the dose rate using IM93 dosimeters and send dosimetry (exposure) reports to the commander. Commanders identify units that exceed the operational exposure guidance. They decide whether to withdraw these units and conduct decontamination operations or continue with the mission. Crew members contaminated by radioactive dust or debris perform partial decontamination by brushing, wiping, and shaking their bodies and gear. They can further reduce radiation exposure by remaining inside their vehicles as much as possible. Contaminated vehicles are partially decontaminated by brushing or washing. This procedure limits the spread of contamination to other areas and reduces radiation hazard. Early decontamination is necessary to cut down on the cumulative effects of radiation. Without quick decontamination, small but frequent exposure to radiation may significantly reduce combat power. The AN/PDR-75 radiac set, consisting of the PT 236 expendable dosimeter and the CP 696 dosimeter reader, will replace the IM93 in the near future. Section III. Chemical Defense Chemical agents are used to kill, injure, or incapacitate personnel. The effects produced by these agents are dose-dependent. This means that increased doses produce a corresponding increase in severity of effects. Through the use of various delivery systems, threat forces can initiate and sustain large-scale chemical warfare operations. D-7

9 DEFENSIVE ACTIONS BEFORE A CHEMICAL ATTACK Make sure all personnel have their protective mask available and that it fits and functions properly. All personnel should be wearing protective clothing in accordance with the MOPP level designated by the commander. Protect all equipment and supplies from liquid chemical contamination. This can be done by keeping it covered. Place the automatic alarm into operation. DEFENSIVE ACTIONS DURING A CHEMICAL ATTACK Use chemical agent detector to determine type of agent and for- ward an NBC-1 chemical report. Continue the mission. Mask and give the alarm. Have all unmasked soldiers put on their protective mask and other MOPP gear. DEFENSIVE ACTIONS AFTER A CHEMICAL ATTACK Certain defensive actions must emergency decontamination as be taken following a chemical at- required, then perform basic tack. Treat casualties, perform skills. Section IV. Biological Defense Biological agents consist of microorganisms and toxins. Microorganisms are germs that cause diseases. Toxins are poisons produced by plants, animals, or microorganisms. Biological agents, including toxins, can cause death and disease among personnel, animals, and plants and deteriorate material. It is not necessary for biological agents to kill to be effective. Their purpose may only be to reduce the ability of enemy forces to fight. This can be done by killing or incapacitating troops and by causing food or supply shortages. commands. Since sunlight re- duces the effects of conventional biological agents (microorgan- isms), the most likely time for a Biological attacks are difficult to recognize. However, they can be detected by alert troops and the intelligence sources of major DETECTION D-8

10 conventional biological attack is almost any type of environment. in the evening and early morning Cloudy and foggy days are also hours. Some toxins are not sensi- ideal for launching biological tive to sunlight, heat, or other attacks. factors and could be employed in BIOLOGICAL DEFENSIVE ACTIONS The best defense is to observe preventive measures such as keeping immunizations up to date, maintaining personal hygiene, eating and resting regularly, and providing rodent and insect control. Prevent agent ingestion by keeping your body clean. Keep small cuts or scratches covered and germ free by using soap, water, and first aid. As insects carry biological agents, prevent insect bites by keeping clothes buttoned and covering skin. After an attack, you must as sume all surfaces have been exposed. Only eat rations that have remained sealed. Wash the outside of food and water containers before opening. Boil all water for at least 15 minutes (this does not apply to water exposed to toxins or spore-forming microorganisms) or use water purification tablets. Section V. Mission-Oriented Protective Posture Protective actions against biological and chemical agents depend on the threat, mission, situation, and weather. As with nuclear protective actions, chemical and biological protective actions fall into three categories: actions before the attack, during the attack, and after the attack. MOPP MOPP levels are established by the commander depending on the risk of NBC attacks. Leaders and or commanders must use the nine MOPP analysis questions to determine appropriate MOPP levels based on the current situation. LEVELS Standardized MOPP levels, as shown in the Standardized MOPP Levels illustration on page D-10, allow commanders to easily increase or decrease levels of protection. Soldiers first don the elements of MOPP gear that take the longest to put on and D-9

11 that degrade mission performance the least. They put on last the MOPP gear elements that can be put on quickly and degrade performance of individual tasks the most. Commanders can raise or lower the amount of protection through five levels of MOPP MOPP Zero through MOPP 4. Commanders may not implement MOPP levels lower than that set by higher headquarters. In addition, commanders have a mask-only option. Protection increases with progression from MOPP zero to MOPP 4, but efficiency decreases correspondingly. The SHORAD platoon leader and squad and section leaders must understand and apply MOPP levels, when required, for the protection and survival of their personnel and themselves. STANDARDIZED MOPP LEVELS D-10

12 MOPP ZERO Soldiers carry the protective MOPP zero allows soldiers to be mask with their LCE, having the free of the burden of wearing the MOPP gear readily available overgarment and mask and yet (that is, within the work area, have them readily available vehicle, fighting position, or the when needed. The battledress like). MOPP zero is appropriate overgarment should remain when the enemy has as NBC em- sealed in the vapor-barrier bag ployment capability but chemi- until needed. Soldiers carry their cal warfare has not begun or M258A1 decontamination kit, when troops are first deployed M8/M9 detector paper, and Mark outside the theater of operation. I Nerve-Agent Antidote Kit. MOPP 1 Soldiers in MOPP 1 wear the M9 paper to the overgarment and battledress overgarment. In hot wear the protective helmet cover. weather, they can wear it directly For soldiers in MOPP 1, the reacover their underwear and may tion time needed to adopt MOPP leave the jacket open for ventila- 4 protection against an attack is tion, but they must keep the cut in half from eight minutes trousers closed. They attach the to four. MOPP 2 Soldiers in MOPP 2 add their matter of seconds. In hot weathchemical-protective overboots. er, soldiers can leave the over- The overboots take about three to garment jacket open for ventilafour minutes to put on, so, once tion but must keep the trousers troops are in MOPP 2, they can go closed. to the higher MOPP levels in a MOPP 3 Soldiers wear the protective greater risk of heat exhaustion mask and hood in MOPP 3, mak- exists. In hot weather, soldiers ing protection almost complete, may open the overgarment jacket but interference with work be- and roll the protective mask and comes significant. The mask and hood for ventilation, but must hood restrict vision, heat stress leave their trousers closed. becomes a major factor, and a MOPP 4 At MOPP 4, soldiers protect rubber gloves with cotton liners. their hands with a pair of NBC They close the overgarment and D-11

13 pull down and adjust the hood, making protection complete. MOPP 4 has the most negative impact on individual efficiency and effectiveness. In a contaminated environment, soldiers do not need to wear protective overgarments or rubber gloves as long as they are protected from direct skin exposure to liquid or solid contamination (transfer hazards). Tanks, some vans, and some buildings are examples of this kind of partial shelter from contamination. Inside these shelters, soldiers may be exposed to vapor hazards but not to transfer hazards. A teletype operator inside a sealed communications van, for example, can work safely and far more efficiently in mask-only posture. Commanders must balance the value of increased efficiency that mask-only posture gives against the increased risk it imposes. If the shelter is penetrated by weapons fire or accident, soldiers inside might be exposed to a transfer hazard. In case of shelter penetration, ordinary clothing provides protection against transfer hazards except against blister hazards. MASK-ONLY POSTURE WARNING Soldiers in mask-only posture must assume the appropriate MOPP level before exiting their shelter. To maintain mask-only posture, returning soldiers must carefully avoid bringing liquid contamination into the shelter. The following situations are appropriate for the Mask-Only command: Ž Troops outside are at MOPP 3 or MOPP 4, and a chemical attack has not occurred. Ž Troops outside are at MOPP 4, and the unit is in a downwind vapor hazard area only. Ž An attack has occurred, and the only hazard has been determined to be a nonpersistent vapor. Ultimately, the decision to go to mask-only for personnel protected from liquid agent contact rests with the commander. Mask- Only is not an appropriate command when blister agent hazards exist. Do not use mask-only when a blister agent is present. Responsibility for MOPP level Variations to MOPP levels and rests with higher levels of com- actors which affect these levels mand as explained in FM 3-4. are also fully explained in FM 3-4. D-12

14 PROCEDURES BEFORE ATTACK The Individual and or Unit Ac- Specific postures are subject to tions illustration describes indi- modification by commanders in vidual and unit actions that must order to permit mission be completed at different MOPP accomplishment. levels prior to an attack. INDIVIDUAL AND OR UNIT ACTIONS D-13

15 Stress and fatigue can be reduced by rotating heavy work requirements, allowing more fre- quent rest periods, making max- imum use of mechanical aids, providing adequate water sup- ply, and reducing the work rate. Leaders must check their soldiers for proper fit and seal on the protective mask and proper fit of protective clothing. Require the soldiers to assume stressed positions (such as bending, twisting, and stretching) to check fit. Compliance with the MOPP level should be checked regularly. SUPERVISION OF MOPP Section VI. Detection, Monitoring, and Unmasking Procedures Every soldier needs to know about several items of NBC defense detection equipment that are considered team or unit equipment rather than individual equipment. The items include the M256/M256A1 chemical agent detector kit and IM93/UD dosimeter. CHEMICAL AGENT DETECTOR KIT (M256/M256A1) The M256/M256A1 kit is issued at squad, crew, or section level. It provides a squad level ability to detect and identify field concentrations of nerve, blister, or blood agent vapors. It differentiates between classes of agents and helps determine when unmasking may be safe after a chemical attack. The kit consists of 12 individually packaged samplers and detectors, a set of instruction cards, and a packet of ABC-M8 VGH chemical agent detector papers. These components come packed in a small, compact, plastic case. Each sampler and detector detects harmful vapor concentrations of nerve, blister, and blood agents. It changes color upon contact with chemical agents at concentrations hazardous to an unmasked person. See TM for further information. D-14

16 DOSIMETER The Army standard tactical instrument for reading total radiation dose is the IM93/UD. It is a tubular device, about the size of a fountain pen. It allows the user to read the accumulated gamma total dose simply by looking through the lens while pointing the instrument toward the sun or another bright light source. One end has a dust cap to keep dirt from the charging contacts. This dosimeter requires a charging unit the P1578A/PD radiac-detector charger. This charger is a small, electrostaticcharge generator. It is designed (lm93/ud) to zero all United States and certain NATO tactical combat dosimeters. The charger has its own NATO adapter stored within the case. The major operating features of the charger are the charging knob, charging pedestal, and window. Reading the unit requires direct sunlight or another bright light source, such as vehicle headlights or a flashlight. Because of its size, the IM93/UD could be easily misplaced or otherwise lost. Care must be taken to ensure that this valuable instrument used for measuring radiation is readily available when needed. SUPERVISE RADIOLOGICAL MONITORING AND SURVEY Designate a point where readings will be taken within your area. Note the grid coordinates of that point. Check the operator to make sure he takes readings at least once each hour (periodic type). The appropriate TM will indicate when and how often the meter needs zeroing or calibration. Make sure the operator immediately reports to you all readings indicating radiation and the time of these readings. Use this information to prepare an NBC-4 report. Have the operator monitor continuously using the IM 174 (rad per hour) or AN/PDR-27 (O to 500 millirads) if any of the following conditions occur: Ž A reading of one centigray per hour (rad per hour) or more is received. Ž A fallout warning is received. Ž A nuclear burst is seen, heard, or reported. Ž An order to do so is received. Ž The unit begins to move. Continue these operations until directed to stop, or less than one centigray per hour (rad per hour) is detected. D-15

17 INITIATE UNMASKING PROCEDURES The unit commander decides when to initiate unmasking procedures. The platoon leader is not authorized to make this decision. If a platoon leader cannot make contact with his higher element, then he should remain masked and take actions to regain contact. After receiving permission from a commander and with the aid of a chemical agent detector kit, perform the following steps to initiate unmasking procedures Ž Use a chemical agent detector kit to check for the presence of chemical agents. Ž If the kit does not detect agents, have two soldiers unmask for five minutes and then remask. ŽMonitor for ten minutes the condition of the soldiers that unmasked. When no symptoms of chemical agents appear in the two soldiers, it is safe to unmask. If a chemical agent detector kit is not available, perform the following steps to initiate unmasking procedures: Ž Have two soldiers break the seal on their masks for 15 seconds. Soldiers should keep their eyes open and they should hold their breath. Ž Soldiers should reseal their masks and monitor their condition for ten minutes. Ž If no chemical agent symptoms appear, have the same two soldiers rebreak their seal, take three or four breaths and then reseal. Ž Repeat the monitoring process. Ž If no chemical agent symptoms appear, have the same two soldiers unmask for a five minute period then remask. Ž Repeat the monitoring process. When no chemical agent symptoms appear, it is safe to unmask. SUPERVISE TACTICAL DOSIMETRY OPERATIONS Check all dosimeters to make within the unit s area. Make sure sure they read 0. If any dosimeter they accurately read the dosimedoes not, recharge it. If a charger ters when submitting daily reis not available, note the ports to you. readings. Average these readings, round Select personnel to wear the to the nearest ten, and report this dosimeter. These individuals average to your commander. should be performing duties D-16

18 Section VIl. Decontamination Decontamination is essential to prevent casualties and combat degradation in a fallout or chemically contaminated environment. In the past, when a unit was hit with chemicals, it pulled out of the battle, found a chemical unit, and went through an 18-hour ordeal to remove all traces of chemical contamination. Tactically, this approach is not feasible, and logistically, it is unsupportable. If a unit still has combat power, it must continue its mission. METHODS OF DECONTAMINATION When a force is attacked with NBC weapons, its combat power drops. An important reason for this is the drop in performance caused by operating in high levels of MOPP. Various methods of decontamination allow units to lessen the adverse impact of an NBC attack. Three types of decontamination allow units to lessen the impact of an NBC attack on combat power. These types are basic skills, hasty decontamination operations, and deliberate decontamination operations. The following paragraphs discuss the three types. BASIC SKILLS The basic skills type of decon- unit vehicle (Ml 1 decontaminatamination includes the simple tion apparatus, M258A1 deconskills basic to soldier survival. lamination kit). The soldier s Survival decontamination (done Manual of Common Tasks (see within one minute of contamina- STP SMCT) provides further tion determination) is conducted information on basic skills using supplies and equipment decontamination. carried by each individual or HASTY DECONTAMINATION Hasty decontamination opera- possible temporary relief from tions are the actions of teams or MOPP 4. By speeding the process squads using equipment found of weathering for chemical and within battalion-size units. biological contamination, it Hasty decontamination reduces makes deliberate decontamina the spread of contamination on tion easier. This makes its hazpeople or equipment and allows ards only a negligible risk to D-17

19 unprotected soldiers. Also, hasty decontamination requires little preplanning. This method, also called unit-sustainment, consists of two techniques: MOPP gear exchange and vehicle washdown which should be done within six hours. DELIBERATE DECONTAMINATION Deliberate decontamination troop decontamination is interoperations require detailed pre- nally done by the unit and deplaning. More manpower and tailed equipment decontaminaresources are needed than in tion requires external support. hasty decontamination. Detailed TECHNIQUES OF DECONTAMINATION Seven decontamination tech- These seven techniques are fully niques are used to support the explained in FM 3-5, Chapters 4 three types of decontamination. through 6. D-18