2.8 Implications of Tactical Versus Commercial Herbicides References... 49

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1 Contents 1 Vietnam and the Agent Orange Controversy Revisited Background The Use of Tactical Herbicides in the Vietnam War The Disposal of Agent Orange Finding a Resolution to Vietnam Veterans Health Concerns The Return to Vietnam Methodological Issues in Assessing Impacts Overview of the Book References A History of the Development and Procurement of Tactical Herbicides Background The Initial Development of Tactical Herbicides Previous Research Supporting the Initial Deployment of Tactical Herbicides in Vietnam The Selection of the First Tactical Herbicides for Use in South Vietnam The Defoliation Conferences The Major Three Tactical Herbicides Used in Vietnam Physical Properties, Handling and Safety Evaluations of the Tactical Herbicides The Procurement and Management of Tactical Herbicides Purchase Descriptions for the Tactical Herbicides Quantities of Tactical Herbicides Procured Ports of Embarkation Management of the Tactical Herbicides Summary of What Defined Tactical Herbicides The Role of the Armed Forces Pest Control Board and Commercial Herbicides Summary of the Use of Commercial Herbicides bythedod xi

2 xii Contents 2.8 Implications of Tactical Versus Commercial Herbicides References The Military Use of Tactical Herbicides in Vietnam Environmental Characteristics of South Vietnam The Rationale for Herbicide Use in South Vietnam Combat Tactical Zones Historical Background on Early Spray Missions Use Patterns of Individual Herbicides Historical and Procedural Information on Operation RANCH HAND Deployment of Aircraft Development, Test, and Evaluation of Aerial Spray Systems for Vietnam RANCH HAND Support Activities and Concepts Accidental Spills MACV Directive 525-1: Herbicide Procedures and Operations Post Approval Procedures in Operation RANCH HAND Coordinating RANCH HAND Spray Missions Encountering a Hostile Environment The Critical Role of the Forward Air Controller Executing the Spray Mission Preparation of the Daily Air Activity Report (DAAR) Other Herbicide Requests The Role of the Army Chemical Corps Herbicide Operations in the Individual Combat Tactical Zones The Preparation, Accuracy, and Use of the Military Records Other Sources of Herbicide Consumption Data The Accuracy of Geographic Data Alternate Methods of Clearing Vegetation Insecticides and Operation FLYSWATTER Termination of Herbicide Use References Removal from Vietnam and Final Disposition of Agent Orange Background Operation PACER IVY Storage and Maintenance of Agent Orange in the United States Operation PACER HO Selection of At-Sea Incineration and Discussion of Alternative Methods

3 Contents xiii Operation PACER HO Description of Land-Based Operations Operations at the Naval Construction Battalion Center Operations at Johnston Island, Central Pacific Ocean Land-Based and Shipboard Air Monitoring Programs Brief Description of Shipboard Operations The Termination of Operation PACER HO References Agent Orange and its Dioxin Contamination The Significance of the Dioxin Contaminant in Agent Orange Formation of the TCDD Contaminant Establishing Agent Orange and its Contaminant as a Major Public Health Issue Composition of Agent Orange and Associated Contaminants Estimates of Quantities of Tactical Herbicides Procured by the Defense Supply Agency The Initial Analysis of Dioxin Contamination in the Agent Orange Inventory Sampling the NCBC and Johnston Island Inventories of Agent Orange Air Force Results of Johnston Island Analyses for Dioxin Results of the Naval Construction Battalion Center Analyses A Re-analysis of TCDD in Agent Orange Stocks A Re-evaluation of the NCBC and Johnston Island Agent Orange Inventories Statistical Methodology for Air Force Data Results for NCBC and Johnston Island Agent Orange Inventories TCDD Data from the NIOSH Studies of 2,4,5-T Production Statistical Analysis of Dioxin Levels in Production Samples of 2,4,5-T Formulations Results and Discussion of NIOSH Data Sets Conclusions as to the Amount of TCDD Disseminated in South Vietnam References

4 xiv Contents 6 The Testing of Aerial Spray Equipment, and Ecological Impacts of the Programs at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida Introduction Background Test and Evaluations Projects on Test Area C-52A Hardstand 7 Herbicide Loading and Storage Site Herbicides/Chemicals Sprayed in the Test and Evaluation Programs TCDD in Agent Orange and Purple Disseminated on the Test Area The Military s Response to the Herbicides Sprayed on Test Area C-52A Chemical and Bioassay Studies of Soil Cores from Test Area C-52A Studies of the Vegetation of Test Area C-52A Synopsis of Vegetative Studies Discussion of the Sampling Procedure, Results, and Photographic Records Studies of the Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, and Amphibians Aquatic Studies Insect Studies Summary of Ecological Surveys Persistence of TCDD in the Soils of Test Area C-52A Routes of TCDD Disappearance on Test Girds Receiving 2,4,5-T Herbicide Animal Studies of TCDD Uptake Long-term Field Studies of the Beachmouse, Peromyscus polionotus Actions to Control the Movement of TCDD from Hardstand 7 and Test Area C-52A Conclusions References Monitoring Studies of Former Agent Orange Storage Sites in Mississippi and Johnston Island Requirements for Site Reclamation of NCBC and Johnston Island Historical Background on the Naval Construction Battalion Center The Issue of Defective and Damaged Drums Results of the USAF Academy Monitoring Program, Environmental Health Laboratory Monitoring Program,

5 Contents xv 7.3 Historical Background on Johnston Island Results of Early Monitoring Programs on Johnston Island Potential Water Contamination of Johnston Island Design of the Protocol for Monitoring the Herbicide Storage Sites Preliminary Evaluation of the Protocol at NCBC Implementation of the Formal Protocol Chemical Analyses of Samples Microbial Analyses of Samples Results and Discussion of Herbicide and Microbial Data Aquatic System Monitoring for TCDD at NCBC, Management Recommendations for the NCBC Herbicide Storage Site Implementation of the AFESC Herbicide Orange Monitoring Program Site Characterization Study of NCBC in Preparation for Reclamation Final Reclamation Actions at the Naval Construction Battalion Center The Reclamation of the Johnston Island Herbicide Storage Site References Agent Orange and Dioxin Remediation and the Return to Vietnam The National Academy of Sciences Study, The Period of Limited Access to Vietnam and Studies on Agent Orange, Normalization Between the United and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 1995-Present The Agent Orange Dioxin Remediation Workshops, Background on the Workshops The 1st Agent Orange and Dioxin Remediation Workshop, August The 2nd Agent Orange and Dioxin Remediation Workshop, June History and Maps of the Former Tactical Herbicide Storage and Loading Sites in Vietnam References

6 xvi Contents Postlude: Can there be a Satisfactory End to the Agent Orange Controversy? The Resolution in Vietnam The Resolution for Vietnam Veterans References Index

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