A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF PRE- AND POST LARGE-SCALE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES FOCUS ON EMPLOYMENT CREATION. Wellington Didibhuku Thwala

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1 A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF PRE- AND POST LARGE-SCALE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES IN SOUTH AFRICA WITH PARTICULAR FOCUS ON EMPLOYMENT CREATION Wellington Didibhuku Thwala A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering. Johannesburg, 2009

2 DECLARATION I declare that this thesis is my own unaided work. It is being submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering in the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination in any other University... Wellington Didibhuku Thwala..day of 2009 ii

3 ABSTRACT In South Africa, the levels of unemployment and poverty are extremely high and these are two of South Africa s most pressing problems. Over the past 28 years several major programmes have been initiated in South Africa to counter unemployment and poverty. Between 1980 and 1994, the former government spent billions of Rands on large-scale development programmes with the stated objective of using labour-intensive methods during the provision of physical infrastructure, to create employment and alleviate poverty. However, this did not solve the unemployment problem. Since 1994 the African National Congress (ANC) government has implemented large-scale programmes with similar objectives to those before After an analysis of the theoretical premises and implementation of labour-intensive public works programmes in Africa, the thesis critically evaluated several pre - and post large-scale development programmes in South Africa. Major conclusions are that very little sustainable employment was created and there was no long-term programme approach to address poverty alleviation. Furthermore, lessons that could have been learnt from pre 1994 have not been applied in the post 1994 period. Shortcomings in programme planning and implementation of large-scale development programmes in South Africa still exist. Another major conclusion is that the pre-1994 lessons were not taken into considerations in the post-1994 programme planning and implementation. Based on the research, the author has derived a six phase Programme Management Framework for Development Programmes. This framework embodies a long-term programme management approach to the planning and implementation of large-scale, labour-intensive development programmes. KEYWORDS: Labour-intensive, public works, employment creation, large-scale development programmes projects, poverty, and infrastructure. iii

4 To my Father and Mother Samuel Mpini Thwala and Nester Phahlakati Thwala iv

5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the following people for their support in the preparation of this document. First, I would like to gratefully acknowledge the guidance, encouragement, insights and opportunities given to me by Professor R.T. McCutcheon, who supervised this thesis. Various people from the Department of Public Works, Independent Development Trust, University of Witwatersrand Project Management in Developing Areas students, Gauteng Department of Transport, Roads and Works, International Labour Organisation staff members, their support in providing me with information is acknowledged. The financial support from Mellon Foundation and the National Department of Public Works is acknowledged. To all my friends, particularly David Olebogeng, their support is acknowledged. My brother, Mbuso Simanga Dlamini, who passed away 1 st January 2000 your support throughout my academic life, is acknowledged. I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to my sister, Simisile Nkosingiphile Thwala, who passed away in April 2008, may her soul rest in peace. The support from my daughter, Langelihle Lindelwa Thwala, is acknowledged. My brothers and sister, Mzwandile, Bongani, Shinkela, and Bongiwe Thwala, for their supportive role through difficult times v

6 Lastly I would like to thank my Father and Mother, Mr Samuel Mpini Thwala and Mrs Nester Phahlakati Thwala who cared and sacrificed so much for my early education. vi

7 CONTENTS DECLARATION ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS i iii v vi xv xvi xviii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND Problem Statement Significance of the Study Monitoring and Evaluation Infrastructure and Development Multiplier Effect The Need for Large-Scale Public Works Programmes in South Africa The Research Methodology Descriptive Research Historical Research Comparative Research 15 vii

8 1.8.4 Evaluation Research Structure of the Thesis Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Conclusions 22 CHAPTER 2 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT APPROACH FOR DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS IN SOUTH AFRICA Introduction The Principle of Human Orientation The Principle of Participation Participation Defined The Principle of Empowerment What is empowerment? The Principle of Ownership The Principle of Release The Principle of Learning Obstacles to Community Development Summary 32 CHAPTER 3 OVERVIEW OF EMPLOYMENT CREATION THROUGH PUBLIC WORKS PROGRAMMES IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA AND THE SOUTH AFRICAN EXPERIENCE Introduction 34 viii

9 3.2 Poverty in South Africa Youth Unemployment in South Africa Unemployment and Skills Development in South Africa Public works programmes and employment creation Overview of African Experiences through the Use of the Labour-Intensive Approach in Public Works Programmes Infrastructure and Development The Need for Public Works Programmes in South Africa Implementation of Public Works Projects through Labour-intensive methods in South Africa: Summary of Experiences, Problems and Prospects Summary 50 CHAPTER 4 PRE 1994 LARGE-SCALE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES AND PROJECTS Introduction The Greater Soweto Upgrading Project Programme Achievement Lessons Learnt The Republic of South Africa KwaZulu-Natal Development Programme Development programme achievement Lessons learnt Strategic Oil Reserves Fund Programmes Achievement of project objectives Achievement of plans and lessons learnt The Special Employment Creation Programme Achievements of objectives Weaknesses Projects and Programme Findings, Recommendations and Conclusion Summary 74 CHAPTER 5 COMMUNITY BASED PUBLIC WORKS PROGRAMME 76 ix

10 5.1 Introduction Policy and Institutional Failure Overview of the 1999/2000 and 2000/2001 Community Based Public Works Programme The nature of the Community Based Public Works Programme Managing the Community Based Public Works Programme Provincial Department of Public Works The 1999/2000 Community Based Public Works Programme The 2000/2001 Community Based Public Works Programme Budget allocation The results What assets were delivered by the CBPWP? The cost of delivery Calculating the management cost of the CBPWP Expenditure The provision of training Creating employment Sustainable employment Temporary employment Meeting the CBPWP employment targets Summary 105 CHAPTER 6 THE NATIONAL FOOD EMERGENCY PROGRAMME Introduction The National Food Emergency Programme Programme Management Plan Programme scope Beneficiaries Target Areas Food Parcels Programme timeframes 117 x

11 6.5.2 Programme budget Institutional Arrangements Communication management Quality Management Risk Management Monitoring and Reporting Beneficiary Identification Appointment of Service Providers Delivery of Food Parcels Monitoring and Reporting Beneficiary profile form Distribution summary sheet Household level form Communication Beneficiary Identification and Data Management National Provincial Experiences Service Provider Management National Provincial experiences Delivery of food parcels National Provincial Experiences Provision of Supplementary Food Drop-in-Centres Financial Management Expenditure Challenges Implementation Timeframes Beneficiary Identification Quality of Food 146 xi

12 Appointment of Service Providers Monitoring and Reporting Participation by other role players Stakeholder Participation Lessons Learned Capacity of Service Providers Grade of Food Items Cost of Food Parcel Distribution points Summary 150 CHAPTER 7 THE POVERTY RELIEF PROGRAMME: THE CLEAN AND GREEN PROGRAMME Background Introduction to the Clean and Green Programme Methodology Programme aims Strategic partnerships Operational level partnerships Challenges to the Partnership Challenges to the Partnership at the Strategic Level The challenges to the partnerships at the project level Programme achievements Programme Costs Programme Outcomes Cleaning up Campaigns Greening Campaigns Environmental Campaigns Capacity Building Lessons Learnt Programme conceptualisation 167 xii

13 7.9.3 Proposed Deliverables Programme Sustainability Recommendations Strategic partnerships Beneficiary testimonies Challenges to implementation IDT value adding Summary 177 CHAPTER 8 ZIVUSENI POVERTY RELIEF PROGRAMME Introduction Programme purpose Programme Scope Programme Objectives Planned beneficiaries and beneficiary communities Budget and Cash-flow Cycles Explanatory Notes to budget Strategic partnerships Programme outputs and achievements of social targets 187 Part A: Cash flow 188 PART B: Social Targets 189 PART C: Analysis Challenges to implementation Recruitment strategy Geographic targeting Training Targeting the disabled Beneficiary payment Lessons learnt Programme design Community expectations 193 xiii

14 8.8.3 Communication and social facilitation Summary 194 CHAPTER 9 AN EVALUATION OF THE INTEGRATED SUSTAINABLE RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME IN THE KGALAGADI DISTRICT MUNICIPALITY Introduction The Developmental Mandate The Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Strategy The responsibilities of the Independent Development Trust Vision of the ISRDS Why the Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Strategy Nodal Approach Delivery Framework Methodology Overview of the Kgalagadi District Municipality Demographic profile Social Profile Economic Profile Kgalagadi District Municipality Nodal Objectives Specific Anchor Projects Integrated Energy Centre Roads, Clinics and Primary Health Care Mothibistad Housing Project Flagship Poultry and Abattoir Project Livestock improvement and production Kgalagadi Dipudi Enterprise Moshaweng Municipal Offices Kgalagadi Water Project Electrification Project Municipal Support Programme 231 xiv

15 9.16 Summary 232 CHAPTER 10 FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONs AND GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction Findings Recommendations The Author s Proposed Programme Management Framework for Development Programmes in South Africa When to use the framework How the framework is applied Programme Framework Check List Stage 1: Identification of need Stage 2: Training and empowerment of stakeholders Stage 3: Alternatives and approval Stage 4: Implementation and monitoring of the programme Stage 5: Evaluation of the development programme and framework Stage 6: Sustainability of the development programme What is the role of the Programme Manager? What is the role of a Programme Steering Committee? Summary of the main Research Findings Areas for Further Research Conclusion 264 Bibliography 266 APPENDIX A PEOPLE INTERVIEWED 298 A.1 Professionals 298 A.2 Residents 298 xv

16 APPENDIX B ZIVUSENI POVERTY RELIEF PROGRAMME GAUTENG DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT, ROADS AND WORKS IDT PROGRAMME DESIGN LIST OF FIGURES Figure 10.1: Proposed project management framework for development programme in South Africa 249 xvi

17 LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Poverty indicators by province in South Africa Table 3.2: Employment status (official definition of employment) Table 3.3: Employment age cohorts that are 18 to 25 years and 26 to 35 years Table 3.4: Case study: non-residential building Table 4.1: Total infrastructure backlog roads, streets and stormwater drainage Table 4.2: Sewerage services Table 4.3: Water supply and reticulation Table 4.4: Project achievements Table 4.5: Pre-1994 projects and programmes planned and actual budget Table 5.1: Budget allocation 1999/2000 to 2000/ Table 5.2: Distribution of projects across the project categories Table 5.3: Table 5.4: Table 5.5: Table 5.6: Table 5.7: Table 6.1: Table 6.2: Table 6.3: Actual expenditure as per analysis of final payments to project implementing agency by year Actual expenditure taking into account management/ support at project implementing agency level by year CBPWP management cost (including/excluding social facilitation by year Short and long-term job opportunities created by year and province Performance in meeting in the employment targets by year and province Statistics South Africa: categories of household food per capita monthly expenditure Breakdown of Band A by province according to Statistics South Africa Target areas per province and the estimated number of beneficiary households Table 6.4: Food parcel content xvii

18 Table 6.5: Allocation of funds per province Table 6.6: Risk categories Table 6.7: Number of beneficiaries captured by province Table 6.8: Service providers appointed per province Table 6.9: The number of food parcels delivered per province Table 6.10: List of Drop-in-Centres identified Table 6.11: Provincial expenditure as at 30 September Table 7.1: Budget allocation per project site for financial year 2001/ Table 7.2: Clean Green project sites for the project duration Table 7.3: Breakdown of costs invested into CAGP by the partners Table 8.1: Budget for Zivuseni Poverty Alleviation Project Year 1 (2002/2003) Table 8.2: Revised Budget for Zivuseni Poverty Alleviation Project Year 2 (2003/2004) Table 8.3: Revised Budget for Zivuseni Poverty Alleviation Project Year 3 (2004/2005) Table 8.4: Programme achievements Table 9.1: Population by race Table 9.2: Economic and basic infrastructure indicators Table 9.3: Monthly sales of fuel (in litres) Table 9.4: Monthly sales of LP gas by type of unit sold Table 9.5: September 2003 diesel order (in litres) for Sedibeng Water Table 9.6: Household status in the Kgalagadi District Table 9.7: Water status in Kgalagadi Table 10.1: Shortcomings of pre- and post-1994 projects and programmes xviii

19 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS CASE CASP CBPWP CETA CIM DBSA DoA DoL DOT Community Agency for Social Enquiry Clean and Green Programme Community-Based Public Works Programme The Construction Education and Training Authority Capital-Intensive Methods Development Bank of Southern Africa Department of Agriculture Department of Labour Department of Transport RSA/KNDP Republic of South Africa/ KwaZulu-Natal Development Programme DWAF CIM EIC EIEC EIM EPWP GDP IDT ILO ISRDP Department of Water Affairs and Forestry Capital Intensive Methods Employment Intensive Construction Employment Intensive Engineering Consultants Employment Intensive Methods Expanded Public Works Programme Gross Domestic Product Independent Development Trust International Labour Organisation Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Programme xix

20 LIM LITE KRAAP KSAB M&E MI MIP NEF NGOs NDPW NPWP RARP RDP SAB SADC SAICE SAACE SASS SANCO SDIs SECP SORF SPWP SOWETO RDP Labour-Intensive Methods Labour-Intensive Training and Engineering Kenyan Rural Access Roads Programme Keep South Africa Beautiful Monitoring and Evaluation Machine-Intensive Municipal Infrastructure Programme National Economic Forum Non-Governmental Organisations National Department of Public Works National Public Works Programme Rural Access Roads Programme Reconstruction and Development Programme South African Breweries Southern African Development Community South African Institution of Civil Engineers South African Association of Consulting Engineers South African Statistical Service South African National Civic Organisation Spatial Development Initiatives Special Employment Creation Programme Strategic Oil Reserve Fund Special Public Works Programme South Western Township Reconstruction and Development Programme xx

21 UN UNPD WB WEP United Nations United Nations Development Programme World Bank World Employment Programme xxi