The Intelligence Function Issues in Crime and Justice CJ 4610 PA 5315 Professor James J. Drylie Week 3
The Evolution of US Intelligence The function of intelligence in the United States is often regarded as a product of the Cold War. The use of intelligence in America has been a function that can be traced to the founding of the Republic. Intelligence has long been a staple of the military and shaping American policies toward other countries.
The American Revolution General George Washington was an avid consumer of intelligence and is noted as a consummate practitioner of the intelligence craft. In 1775 Washington employed an unidentified agent to live in Boston to report on the movements of British troops. The use of secret correspondence was a surreptitious way of providing information.
General Washington was know for Recruiting spies He ran a number of agents Set up spy rings Devised secret methods of reporting Analyzed raw intelligence Mounted an extensive campaign to deceive the British Many of Washington s s activities in this regard have been credited with major military victories and the ability of the Continental Army to evade the British during the winters at Valley Forge.
Washington's thoughts The necessity of procuring good intelligence is apparent and need not be further urged For upon Secrecy, success depends in most Enterprises of the kind, & for want of it, they are generally defeated, however well planned.... (letter to Colonel Elias Dayton, 26 July 1777)
Early Progression of Intelligence November 1775 the Continental Congress created the Committee of Secret Correspondence. This committee gathered foreign intelligence from people in Ireland, England, and elsewhere in Europe to help prosecute the war. President Washington requested Congress to provide funds to finance intelligence operations.
July 1790 Congress established the Contingent Fund of Foreign Intercourse (also known as the Secret Service Fund). $40,000 was authorized for this purpose. Within three years the fund had grown to $1 million, or 12 percent of the Government s s budget. Although Congress required certification of expenditures it allowed the president to conceal the purposes and recipients of the funds. This aspect withstood a Congressional challenge in 1846 when President Polk, citing national security grounds, would not provide specific information.
Succeeding administrations may not have been as interested in intelligence to the extent that Washington was. A paucity in historical records between the late 1800s and early 1900. During the War of 1812, there was a significant failure in military intelligence. MI failed to discover an advancing British troops until they were 16 miles from Washington The Secretary of War refused to believe the British would invade Washington MI reported from this perspective
Civil War Union & Confederate leaders relied on Intel Established spy networks Used the press for gathering info Confederates established the Signal and Secret Service Bureau Union code breakers decoded Confederate messages Union forces established a Balloon Corps Bureau of Military Intelligence First professional Intel organization General Joseph Hooker conducted assessments and analysis of Confederate troops One major setback was the overload of Information BMI was disestablished at the end of the war 1865 the US Secret Service was created
Intelligence in Peacetime Prior to the 1880s Intel were devoted almost exclusively to military operations 1882 1 st permanent Intel organization Office of Naval Intelligence Collect Intel on foreign navies in peace- time 1885 Military Intelligence Division Similarly collected Intel foreign and domestic
President Theodore Roosevelt Perhaps the most active use of intelligence for foreign policy purposes by any President until that time Used operatives to incite revolution in Panama to justify annexing the Panama Canal 1907 relied on Intel that showed the build-up up of the Japanese Launched the Great White Fleet
Civilian Intelligence 1908 Justice Department Bureau of Investigation Forerunner to the FBI Established out of concern of Secret Service agents spying on members of Congress 1916 saw the establishment of a charter that included Internal security Border control Mexican war neutrality violations
Pre-World War With war in Europe the Bureau turned its attention to activities of German and British nationals within US borders
World War I With the advent of war the US lacked a coordinated intelligence effort President Woodrow Wilson had a personal disdain for spies British intelligence would help change his mind
The Zimmerman Telegram British Intelligence had intercepted German diplomatic and naval traffic The Germans were attempting to entice Mexico into joining the effort against the US Germany offered the states of New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona to Mexico in exchange for assistance 1917 Wilson was infuriated and urged Congress to declare war
June 1917 US signals intelligence formed in the US Army MI-8 Charged with decoding military communications and providing codes Decrypted Japanese diplomatic traffic President Hoover was against State Department interception of diplomatic cables Gentlemen do not read each other s mail 1925 J. Edgar Hoover named director of the Bureau (renamed FBI in 1935)
J. Edgar Hoover Bureau s s charter was broadened in the years leading to World War II Concern for US internal security was mounting in the face of German aggression in Europe The Interdepartmental Intelligence Coordinating Committee was created First effort to coordinate US Intel community Many agencies were reluctant to share information
World War II FDR relied on American and European travels to provide him with timely and accurate Intel William J. Donovan WWI veteran sent to Europe by FDR to gather information on the stability of Britain as well as Italy Donavan AKA Wild Bill lobbied for a centralized, civilian Intel apparatus to complement the military
1941 FDR appointed Donavan as the Coordinator of Information (COI) to form a non-military Intel organization The COI collected and analyzed info and data that may have a bearing in national security Donovan relied on a British model of Intel and incorporated academics to review analysis and test conclusions
Pearl Harbor revealed serious flaws in US Intel Handled in a casual, uncoordinated manner Insufficient attention to collection requirements Failure to provide timely dissemination of relevant information to key decisionmakers Grossly underestimation of Japanese actions Based on cultural biases
Forerunner of the CIA June 1942 Office of Strategic Services (OSS) Succeeded the COI Established under the recently created Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) OSS was chartered to conduct clandestine operations against Axis powers on a worldwide scale Donovan s s fear of a joint military-civilian apparatus was evident in the problems that OSS had in interfacing with JCS
Code Breakers Army signals intelligence broke the Japanese codes US Army, Polish, and British decoded German military communications using Enigma cipher machines, code named ULTRA Both resulted in shortening the War in both theaters of operation
Using assets The Marine Corps used native Americans in an elaborate system of communications that Axis powers could not decipher The Navajo Code Talker Program Successfully used in the conflicts in Korea and Vietnam
Less than intelligent decisions By 1945 President Harry Truman abolished the OSS Functions were divided between the War and State Departments Some felt that Donovan was too strong a personality to continue with OSS This human factor will play out in future IC feuds
Central Intelligence January 1946 President Truman issues an executive order creating the National Intelligence Authority (NIA), a Central Intelligence Group (CIG), and the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) NIA is comprised of Secretaries of War, State, Navy Presidential representatives
June 1946 Congress passes legislation creating the office of Secretary of Defense (SecDef( SecDef) SecDef would provide the unification of the military establishment National Security Act of 1947 The DCI was a presidential appointment The DCI could be military or civilian A military DCI would not be in the military chain of command Created the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
1950s 1960s October 1952 President Truman establishes the National Security Agency (NSA) NSA would be the single entity to be responsible for signals intelligence 1954 Truman authorizes high- flying reconnaissance of Soviet aire defense systems The U-2 U 2 program was a joint CIA-USAF OP
1961 - Bay of Pigs CIA failure in assisting Cuban expatriates to invade Cuba Promised US military assistance did not happen Significant failure CIA reputation suffered 1962 Cuban missile crisis U-2 2 photographs played a significant role in resolving the crisis
The 1970s President Nixon directed that the IC should be changed to bring about greater efficiency and effectiveness The intelligence functions were found to be Fragmented Disorganized Collection activities were competitive and redundant Unplanned Unguided The media, fueled by Watergate, reported critically on intelligence activities
The Rockefeller Commission Created by President Gerald Ford (1975) Chaired by VP Nelson Rockefeller Tasked with determining whether CIA employees were operating illegally within the US Report confirmed domestic mail opening operation In the 60s 70s the CIA kept files on 300K US citizens and organizations President Nixon tried to use CIA records for political ends The CIA was not involved in the 1963 assassination of JFK
The Church Committee The US Senate impaneled the Committee to Study Government Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities One of the largest investigations ever undertaken by the Senate Examined domestic and foreign activities Covert activity Assassinations IRS & FBI activities NSA intercepts of communications originating with US citizens
The Pike Committee The counterpart to the Senate s Church Committee Never officially released when completed (1976)
The Murphy Commission The commission began in 1972 and was near completed in June 1975 when the Rockefeller Commission was completing their inquiries Examined the organization and performance of the IC Recommended that the DCI be given greater status within the White House and the IC Covert action be used only when it is clearly essential to vital US purposes
The Outcome Summer of 1975 President Ford implemented 20 of 30 recommendations of the Rockefeller Commission Improved internal supervision within CIA Additional restrictions on CIA domestic activities A ban on mail openings An end to wiretaps Ford did not agree to public disclosure of the IC budget
New Orders February 1976, Ford issued the first Executive Order on intelligence The IC was formally described for the first time Authority and responsibilities were specified A ban on assassinations as an instrument of US policy The establishment of an new Intelligence Oversight Board within the Office of the President
The 1980s President Reagan ran a platform that promised a revitalization of the intelligence function The Republicans asserted that Democrats had impaired the efficiency of the IC Budgets were increased and new personnel hired The DCI was elevated to cabinet rank
The leaks In 1982 Congress passed a law making it a crime to reveal the names of covert intelligence operatives This was on the heels of the murder of at least one covert operative who was killed after the public release of names 1985 saw an unprecedented number of cases of spies within the IC Again, the IC was under intense scrutiny
Iran-Contra 1986 Congress learned that the Reagan Administration had sold arms to Iran in exchange for assistance in securing the release of US hostages in Lebanon This arrangement also involved the support of Contra rebels in Nicaragua funded by proceeds from the arms sales
The end of the Cold War 1989 the Berlin Wall came down The Soviet Union began to break apart Questions were raised about any further need for the IC Others urged significant retrenchment for new challenges 1991 The first Gulf War ushered in new challenges for the IC
A New Type of Warfare The Gulf War saw for the first time real time intelligence conveyed to fighting forces with instantaneous results The links between combat forces and the intelligence function were critical elements in defeating hostile forces