1 One Day in History The history books tell us that the United States was not to enter World War II. That was true; the U.S. did not have a reason to enter the war. The U.S. wanted to stay neutral and not get involved. Many wonder what the world would be like today if they had not decided to enter the war. Because of one day in history, December 7, 1941, no one will know. Pearl Harbor gave the USA a clear cut reason to enter the war, opening the eyes of citizens of all walks of life and leading them to coalesce around a cause. As a result, we saw cultural shocks occur: people who never thought they would serve their country signed up in a heartbeat, and women entered the workforce in new ways. Other citizens supported the war effort through other kinds of sacrifices, while important figures in the civil rights movement began to emerge. Pearl Harbor and World War II made the culture accelerate. If the culture didn't accelerate in the ways explored in this paper America would not look as it does today. When we look back at where our country was, we can see that there were two groups of people that were severely underappreciated. Women and African Americans had longed strived for equality. They were both looked down upon as second-class citizens, and never given the opportunity to prove that they can help the country move forward in times of need. Women had not been granted the right to vote until the 1920, after a long campaign to be treated as equals. Likewise, African Americans had been able to overcome some adversity to gain respect and rights in the eyes of the law. That is why the accomplishments of these groups should not be overlooked. These two groups would benefit greatly from the United States entering the World War II. Both groups would be propelled into roles neither would have ever thought
2 possible. Women would be able to move out of the home and into the factories; while some would even join the fighting force and be deployed overseas in combat support roles such as nurses and communication operators. African Americans would begin to lay the seeds of the Civil Rights movement through their very own military pilots as well as African-American women who would soon see that they could work alongside fellow working women most of whom were white 1. Even with all of the good that came out of the war for both groups, important sacrifices were still made. Parents had to send their sons and daughters to fight in a war, children had to give up everyday luxuries to help troops while as seeing there moms working outside the home. Many decided that even though they could not physically join the military or work in factories, they would still want to contribute to the soldiers. Even though the government enforced rationing, many knew that this would be the way to sacrifice part of their lives to support the troops. Throughout the war, different items were rationed in order to meet demand. Rationed items included: tires, cars, bikes, gasoline, kerosene, solid fuels, stoves, rubber footwear, shoes, sugar, coffee, processed foods, meats, canned fish, cheese, milk and fats. 2 There was such a need for certain items to supply the troops but people knew there futures depended on the war and were willing to, sometimes reluctantly, forgo those items for a period of time. Women would have a lot to gain from the entry of the United States into World War II. With all the men needed for front-line battle duties, the country still needed people to help produce goods to send to those who were in theatre. That is where women would heed the call. They understood that it would be time for them to put down their 1 Judy B. Litoff and David Smith. We re in this War, Too. (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1994.) 82. 2 American Historical Society. 1990. Rationed Goods in the USA During the Second World War. http://www.ameshistoricalsociety.org/exhibits/ration_items.htm. (Accessed November 18, 2008).
3 aprons and pick up a riveter. They would put themselves in a position to not only help their families while their husbands, sons and brothers were away, but they knew that they could also change the conception of women in our nation. 3 Women were hired to fill positions normally occupied by men, jobs that not only paid higher wages than those in female fields but were thought to require masculine abilities and attitudes. 4 They knew what they had to do in order to support the war effort patriotically, but they also knew that by taking jobs like this it would prove that women are more than capable to do jobs outside of cooking, cleaning and raising children. It was such a pull for women to prove something that upwards of six million Rosies took up the tools the men set down when America entered WWII. 5 Women knew that they had a place in a new type of American Culture, that of a working mom which would show children a culture they had never seen before. Even though there was a sense of pride in being able to do work that was once thought of as a man s domain on the home front, some women were yearning for more.. After many realized just how much of a skill they possessed, they decided that they could contribute even more to their country, by joining the Armed Forces. The entry into the military for women would begin slowly, but once it was realized that resources were being drained and more women were needed the call went out. They would join every branch of the service, from the Army Air Force, Marines and even the Navy. 6 The services would in turn set up divisions for women and they would find important roles in the service. The biggest need that was filled by women was that of pilots. 3 Maureen Honey, Creating Rosie the Riveter: Class, Gender and Propaganda during World War II. (Amherst, NY: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984.) 5. 4 Honey, 1. 5 Alma Taylor. 2004. Alma Taylor Story: Rosie the Riveter. www.preservation.org/resources/alma_taylor.html (accessed November 18, 2008) 6 Litoff, 29.
4 The need for aviators and airplanes during war years of 1941 to 1944 taxed the nation s resources. Thus, the decision was made by the Army Air Force to try an experiment-to use women pilots. When the plea went out through newspapers and recruiters and into the ranks of civilian pilots that the AAF was recruiting women pilots, 25,000 young women volunteered. Of these, 1,830 were accepted and 1,074 completed flight training, having relearned flying the Army way. They graduated, receiving their wings. 7 This just goes to show that women not only felt that they could do factory jobs as well as men, but that they could fly aircraft. The way women committed themselves to the cause would forever change the perception and culture in the United States about just what women could do. African Americans would play an invaluable role in the war as well. It was March 7, 1942, that five young men stood stiffly at attention on Tuskegee Army Air Field s lone runway. The occasion marked the first graduation exercise of Negro pilots into the Army Air Force. 8 This shows the determination of a group to accomplish a goal because it was so difficult but they knew how important it was. For upon their shoulders not only rested perhaps the future of their country, but the future of Negro youths who might aspire to become pilots. 9 They knew that what they did or did not accomplish on that day would lay the foundation for the future of their race. They knew that if young men saw failure, they would not have ambition to try and achieve more than anyone thought they could. It showed young men that you will achieve your goals, no 7 Jean Hascall Cole, Women Pilots of World War II. ( Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah Press, 1992) IX. 8 Charles E. Francis, The Men Who Changed A Nation: The Tuskegee Airman. (Boston, MA: Branden Publishing, 1988), 1. 9 Francis, 2.
5 matter how long it takes, as long as you don t give up. If you climb over the hills and break through the barriers, you will achieve your goals. It was a struggle to get to that point. In 1917, Negro youth tried to enlist in the Air Service of the Signal Corps as Air Observers. However, the applicants were informed that No colored aero squadrons were being formed at the present time but if later on they decided to form colored squadrons, recruiting officers would be notified. 10 They would struggle for the next 20 years to gain acceptance into the air service because the War Department had the position that from the beginning, the Air Corps had selected men with technical and mechanical experience and ability, that the colored man had not been attracted to flying in the same way or to the extent of the white man and that it had received so many applications from college trained white men that many white applicants had been turned down. 11 Due to the barriers in enlisting, it would take a law by Congress to insure that aviation schools had the tools it needed to provide training to allow Negro pilots to enroll in flight school. 12 Finally, In October 1940, the War Department announced that Negros were in training as pilots, mechanics, and technical specialists and that Negro Aviation units would be organized as soon as the necessary personnel were trained. 13 This just proved to all the doubters in the country that African-Americans are much smarter than they were given credit for. No one had ever thought that African-Americans could achieve much, but they were out on a mission to prove they were equal to other citizens in the country. By December 1940, the Air Corps submitted a plan for the establishment 10 Francis, 2. 11 Francis, 2-3. 12 Francis, 5. 13 Francis, 12.
6 of a Negro pursuit squadron, a base group detachment, a weather and communications detachment and a service unit. 14 The Army-Air Force realized how important a role such a unit could take and were willing to make an investment. Preparations were made to base the units at the proposed Tuskegee Army Air Field; plans were submitted and approved, with construction complete in the Spring of 1941. 15 Finally, the yet-to-be activated unit would have a place to call home and show off with pride. It would be a symbol for a generation to come on where a young African-American could go if they made the investment in themselves. The Tuskegee Airman were officially born on March 21, 1941 when the 99 th was activated. 16 Training would continue with new classes and by February 1943, it had become apparent to all at Tuskegee that definite plans were being made for the 99 th to enter combat. The pilots and ground crew were given intensive training in combat tactics. 17 The 99 th would play an important role, even if many did not believe them upon their return to the United States. More and more men were able to witness the earlier successes and knew they had what it takes to join the elite group. The culture of the United States would be changed forever by these two important groups. Many had thought women could not do anything outside of being a homemaker or secretary. Many thought, including the government, that African-Americans could not be up to the standards that were required to be military aviators. However, the Tuskegee Airman were able to prove everyone wrong. At the end of the war, it looked as though 14 Francis, 13. 15 Francis, 16-19. 16 Francis, 19. 17 Francis, 23.
7 integration of the armed forces, especially the Air Force was to begin. They had received high praise from leadership in the Air Force especially from Gen. Eaker. The carried out the missions assigned to them and they have destroyed enemy aircraft both in the air and on the ground. By their efforts and performances that have won a place in the great Air Force. 18 This is a lot of what they had experienced after their returned. People would praise them for doing their job and serving their country. Privately however, they had learned that they had only been tokenly accepted on the great Air Force team, and that they were subjected to discrimination and segregation. 19 This said to them that while everyone is grateful to you; but not everyone meant it. All of this would help lay the foundation for future cultural shifts in the United States, especially the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960 s. Not only did it show African-Americans that as long as you continue to strive for your goals and never give up, you can achieve your goals. It also showed that through a hard work ethic and nonviolence, you can advance your cause and get people to pay attention. The war was a launch point for the Civil Rights Movement. Many believe that the dominance in world affairs, role in the Cold War, and later involvement in Korea coupled with developments in the domestic economy, all made it possible for blacks to maintain the advances made during World War II. 20 However, once pressure was removed, progress was halted and the promise of the Truman Administration went unfulfilled. 21 Many thought that the progress that African Americans had made in advancing their status could continue once the need for them in 18 Francis, 235. 19 Francis, 235. 20 Neil Wynn, The Afro-American and the Second World War. (Holmes & Meier Publishers: New York: NY, 1975,) 122. 21 Wynn, 122.
8 the war was over. But support for them dropped off once other priorities took precedence. However, by giving a blueprint, future leaders of the Civil Rights Movement like Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King could see how to set a goal and get there. Even if they were young at the time, they saw how these men and women were able to overcome adversity and advance their cause. Women also faced backlash from the public when the men returned. When the men were at war, not only did they take other roles like factory worker and service member but they were also still had to balance everything else. They were able to keep the country up and running by not only supplying materials for the war, but also my keeping everyday pastimes up and running. The best example of this would be the All- American Girl s Professional Baseball League. 22 When the men were off at war, people wanted to keep life as normal as possible. Women were more than willing to step in and fill the role. By the fall of 1942, many minor league teams disbanded due to the war. Young men, 18 years of age and over, were being drafted into the armed services. The fear that this pattern would continue and that Major League Baseball Parks across the country were in danger of collapse is what prompted Philip K. Wrigley, the chewing-gum mogul who had inherited the Chicago Cubs' Major League Baseball franchise from his father, to search for a possible solution to this dilemma. Wrigley asked Ken Sells, assistant to the Chicago Cubs' General Manager to head a committee to come up with ideas. The committee recommended a girls' softball league be established to be prepared to go into Major League parks should attendance fall due to franchises losing too many quality players to attract crowds. 23 However, the war would come to an end and the men would return. As a result, many believe that when the men returned, the women would go back to the kitchen and back to 22 AAGPBL, 2005. League History. http://www.aagpbl.org/league/history.cfm (accessed November 19, 2008) 23 AAFPBL.
9 their roles as mothers and wives. But women felt that all they had accomplished during the war were being ignored and just because the men were home, there was no room for them in the labor market. They had worked so hard to prove they were more, and now they were being shoved to the side. Even to this day, women have to try to overcome stereotypes to try and advance their careers. While women and African Americans benefited in the long run, there were other important factors to look at. When you look at history, support for the war was very widespread. Family of those whose who were serving in the Armed Forces supported it. Others supported it as well, such as anti-communists. On the other hand Adam Berinsky finds when people were asked if they supported the war, if there parents were born in Axis Countries were far less likely to support the Allied cause, which was roughly 28% of people. 24 Another group that opposed the war and their treatment were Japanese- Americans. The public had a fear of Japan as a result of Pearl Harbor, caused discrimination against them. The costs in the short run were borne mostly by Japanese-Americans as well as immigrants from Axis countries like Italy and Germany. 25 This was due to prejudice and discrimination due to only ancestry. The overarching costs in the short-run were also the loss of American lives because they were sent into theatre and many did not come home. However, there were also many benefits. By the United States entering the War, it ensured that communism would not spread into our country and it would save our democracy. The beneficiaries of the US entering the war were defiantly women and 24 Adam Berinsky. Group Attachments and Public Support for War in America at War, Public Opinion During Wartime. (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2009.) http://www.allacademic.com/one/prol/prol01/index.php?cmd=prol01_search&offset=0&limit=5&multi_search_search_mode=publica tion&multi_search_publication_fulltext_mod=fulltext&textfield_submit=true&search_module=multi_search&search=search&search _field=title_idx&fulltext_search=group+attachments+and+public+support+for+war, 25. 25 Berinsky, 15.
10 African Americans. They were able to enter the workforce and Armed Forces and show that they could do much more than many thought they could. They proved that they could positively contribute to society. Sacrifices seem to be unequally shared. Men and women had to sacrifice family members, but many signed up and knew that they could potentially not come home. But, direct descendants of immigrants such as first generation Americans were looked down upon because of where there family came from. Some were ordered to enter internment camps and forced to sacrifice a normal way of life for a long period of time. While many Americans were forced to give up luxuries, the sacrifice of many first generation Americans was greater because they were forced to give up basic rights. Both in the short and long term, the fabric of American constitutional democracy was stronger. We were able to not only show that we will stand up for our freedom in any way possible, but we are also willing to put people in positions where they never thought they could be and be successful and advance culture. Our constitution stands for equality of all citizens, and by women and African Americans contributing in such an important way, it showed our constitution was upheld and advanced to new heights. I have shown is that when we look through the experiences of important groups, we can see that the war had a huge cultural impact on the world we live in. If it were not for December 7, 1941 would the United States have ever entered the war? Would women and African Americans have been able to play an important role to prove what they can do? Would women still be considered just homemakers? Would the Civil Rights Movement have unfolded the way it did? We will never know because one day in history changed the course and culture of our nation forever.
11 Bibliography All American Girls Professional Baseball League. League History. (2005) http://www.aagpbl.org/league/history.cfm (accessed November 19, 2008). American Historical Society. Rationed Goods in the USA During the Second World War. (1990) www.ameshistoricalsociety.org/exhibits/ration_items.htm. (Accessed November 18, 2008). Berinsky, Adam. Group Attachments and Public Support for War in America at War Public Opinion During Wartime. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2009. Cole, Jean Hascall. Women Pilots of World War II. Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah Press, 1992. Francis, Charles E. The Men Who Changed A Nation: The Tuskegee Airman. Boston, MA: Branden Publishing, 1988. Honey, Maureen. Creating Rosie the Riveter: Class, Gender and Propaganda during World War II. Amherst, NY: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984. Litoff, Judy B. and David Smith. We re in this War, Too. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1994. Taylor, Alma. Alma Taylor Story: Rosie the Riveter. (2004) www.preservation.org/resources/alma_taylor.html (accessed November 18, 2008). Wynn, Neil. The Afro-American and the Second World War. New York, NY: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1975.