Background Paper on Existing Arrangements and Cooperation within the Framework of CFSP and ESDP. Sarah Cussen

Background Paper on Existing Arrangements and Cooperation within the Framework of CFSP and ESDP Sarah Cussen Since October 1970, the member states of the European Community have attempted to cooperate informally on major international policy problems in the context of European political cooperation. This cooperation was formalized in the Single European Act of 1986, without changing the intergovernmental nature of the framework. At Maastricht, however, member states incorporated the objective of a common foreign policy into the treaty, which came into force on 1 November 1993. The provisions on Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) were revised by the Amsterdam Treaty, which entered into force in 1999 and since then Article 11 to 28 of the Treaty on European Union are devoted specifically to CFSP. This paper will give basic information on the structure of CFSP, including sections on the High Representative for CFSP, the EU s common diplomatic service, and its relationship to aid and development. Then it will discuss what action is being taken under CFSP, both military operations under the EU flag and the development of the civilian side of crisis management. I will follow with a discussion of the proposed changes in the Draft Constitution that will affect CFSP. Finally, the four missions that have taken place to date in crisis management are briefly summarized. High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy 1 The office of High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy was an innovation of the Treaty of Amsterdam. Javier Solana was appointed to the post on 18 October 1999 for a period of five years. As of late 2002, the staff of the office was 120 strong. 2 Solana s office is made possible by Article 26 in the Treaty on European Union, which reads: The Secretary-General of the Council, High Representative for the common foreign and security policy, shall assist the Council in matters coming within the scope of the common foreign and security policy, in particular through contributing to the formulation, preparation and implementation of policy decisions, and, when appropriate and acting on behalf of the Council at the request of the Presidency, through conducting political dialogue with third parties. The Treaty of Nice, which entered into force on 1 February 2003, contained new CFSP provisions, increasing the areas, which fall under qualified majority voting and enhancing the role of the Political and Security Committee (PSC) in crisis management. The PSC consists of representation at ambassador level from the Member States and the Commission. It prepares recommendations on the future functioning of the CFSP, including European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP), and deals with the day-today running of these issues. The PSC is also authorised to take decisions under delegated authority from the Council during periods of crisis management. This includes both civilian and military aspects of crisis management. 1 Solana s website: Hhttp://ue.eu.int/solana/index.aspH CFSP website: Hhttp://ue.eu.int/pesc/default.asp?lang=enH List of CFSP legislative acts 1993-2003: Hhttp://ue.eu.int/pesc/default.asp?lang=enH 2 Hhttp://www.cer.org.uk/articles/26_keohane.htmlH

At present, the ESDP is part of the portfolio of Solana. ESDP, provided for in the Treaty, covers all matters relating the EU s security, including the gradual formulation of a common defence policy. In official documents, the words security and defence are relatively interchangeable both referring to responding to a new need for an integration of crisis management into the concept of ESDP. ESDP could eventually lead to a common defence, but does not affect the security and defence policies of member states at present and much work has been done to assure its compatibility with NATO. Currently, the most important initiative to come out of Solana s office is the European Security Strategy 3, which was agreed on 12 December 2003. This is the first time Europe has had it s own Security Strategy, defining what Europe collectively considers a threat to its security in order to provide a basis for an eventual common response to these threats. The Strategy confirms that there does exist a consensus about certain key points in how this response will look. The Strategy emphasizes the importance of multilateralism, of building a stable neighbourhood, and of acting swiftly and early with the goal of the EU becoming a more active, more capable, and more coherent global actor. The strategy notes the continuing necessity of the transatlantic framework. The EU s common diplomatic service DG External Relations 4 (Relex), under Commissioner Chris Patten, is a new department that has existed since the restructuring of the Commission at the end of 1999. It coordinates all of the external relations activities of the Commission, including acting as a coordinator with the EU s General Affairs Council and interlocutor with High Representative for the CFSP. Relex manages relations with all third countries, except those European countries, which are part of the enlargement process, relations with international organizations, and the Commission s participation in CFSP, as well as the External Service. The External Service 5 was originally set up to represent the commission in trade negotiations and in some industrialized countries, as well as to coordinate development activities under the Yaoundé and Lome Conventions. Since 1994, the Commission established a Unified External Service, a single management system for all its Delegations in all third countries (123 Delegations around the world) and with five International Organizations (OECD, OSCE, UN, WTO). The Delegations, hierarchically a part of the Commission structure, exercising the powers conferred by the treaties in third countries they promote the Community s interests as they relate to the common policies, chiefly the common commercial policy, but agricultural, fisheries, environmental, transport, and health and safety policies as well. The Delegations play an important role in the implementation of external assistance, a role that is expanding along with reform of the management of the EU s external assistance. This year marks the final stage of the reform, launched in 2000, as they 3 Solana s statement: Hhttp://ue.eu.int/pressdata/EN/articles/78466.pdfH Text of the document: Hhttp://ue.eu.int/pressdata/EN/reports/78367.pdfH 4 DG External Relations website: Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/external_relations/index_en.htmH 5 Unified External Service of the Commission: Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/delegations/intro/index.htmH

take over managing external assistance projects from start to finish in conjunction with the EuropeAid Co-Operation Office. The delegations are playing an increasing role in Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) and CFSP as Community competency evolves in these areas. Their roles are restricted however to analysis and evaluation. The Delegations have close ties with DG Relex, DG Development, DG Enlargement, DG Trade, EuropeAid, and ECHO (European Community Humanitarian Office). The more than 3,000 officials, contractual staff, and local agents working in the Delegations, the buildings and residences housing the Delegations and their staff, sophisticated information and telecommunications equipment, etc. are managed centrally in DG Relex, Directorate K: External Service, in close contact with the Heads of Delegation and their Heads of Administration. There are plans to integrate all Delegation staff administratively in DG Relex in the future, though until the system is reformed they will remain hierarchically a part of the Commission. It has been proposed to reform this system and create in its place a Joint External Action Service of the European Union. 6 The High Representative and the Relex Commissioner would be merged into one office to oversee the new service the European External Representative (which may also be known as EU Minister of Foreign Affairs or EU Foreign Secretary). This person would be appointed by Council, with the approval of the President of the Commission and an endorsement from the European Parliament, have a direct mandate from, and be accountable to, the European Council for issues relating to CFSP, as well as being a full member of the Commission and possibly its vice-president. A distinct External Action Council would be created, formally distinct from the General Affairs formation. Under this new post of European External Representative would operate the European External Action Service. This one joint service would be composed of DG Relex officials, Council Secretariat officials, and staff from national diplomatic services. An EU diplomatic academy and an EU diplomatic service would be created, alongside those of the member states. The Commission s current delegations would become EU delegations or embassies. For aspects of external action not concerned with CFSP, these EU delegations would operate under the direct authority of the Commission. EU development aid As of 2002, the Commission provided more than 10% of Overseas Development Aid (ODA), up from 5% in 1985. The EC and member states provide 55% of total ODA and more than 2/3 of grant aid. The Commission is ranked 5 th as a provider of ODA, behind the US, Japan, Germany, and France. The Commission is the largest donor of humanitarian aid through its ECHO program. The reach of the EU s aid extends all over the world, with more than 150 partners states, territories, and regional organizations. The EU s projects include geographical programs in: 6 Summary of the proposals: Hhttp://register.consilium.eu.int/pdf/dk/03/cv00/cv00839da03.pdfH

-Central and Eastern Europe: PHARE 7, SAPARD 8, and ISPA 9 -The Balkans: CARDS 10 -The New Independent States and Mongolia: TACIS 11 -The Middle East, Southern Mediterranean: MEDA 12 -Africa, Caribbean, Pacific: European Development Fund 13 -Asia and Latin America: ALA 14 As well as thematic programs 15 in: -Democracy and Human Rights -Co-financing with NGOs -Food security -Environment and forests -Antipersonnel landmines -Gender -Health These efforts are managed across a number of different offices and directorates in the European Union. Most of them are now managed through EuropeAid 16, which is a department of the Commission. In order to reform the management of external aid, the Commission formally set up the EuropeAid Cooperation Office on 1 January 2001. 17 EuropeAid was set up to implement the external aid instruments of the European Commission, which are funded, by the European Community budget and the European Development Fund. It does not deal with pre-accession aid programs (PHARE, ISPA, and SAPARD), humanitarian relief activities, macro-financial assistance, CFSP, or the Rapid Reaction Facility. Objectives of the programs are established by the Directorates-General for External Relations and Development 18 and approved by the Commission, and implemented, monitored, and evaluated by EuropeAid, which is itself a part of the Commission. DG Development provides policy guidance to all of the development aid-giving organs of the EU, including those under EuropeAid, ECHO, and those involved with enlargement. Emergency humanitarian action is done through the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) 19, which has been in operation since 1992. ECHO 7 Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/pas/phareH 8 Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/pas/sapard.htmH 9 Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/regional_policy/funds/ispa/ispa_en.htmH 10 Hhttp://www.europa.eu.int/comm/europeaid/projects/cards/index_en.htmH 11 Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/ceeca/tacis/index.htmH 12 Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/euromed/meda.htmH 13 Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/budget/fed/index_en.htmH 14 Asia: Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/europeaid/projects/asia/index_temp_en.htmH Latin America: Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/europeaid/projects/amlat/index_fr.htmH (only in French) 15 For links to information on each theme: Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/europeaid/projects/index_en.htmH 16 Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/europeaid/general/mission_en.htmH). 17 For more information on the reform of the management of the European Community s external assistance, see Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/reform/document/presentation.pdfH. 18 Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/development/index_en.htmH 19 Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/echo/index_en.htmH

operates under the Commission. ECHO has a mandate to provide emergency assistance and relief to the victims of natural disasters or armed conflict outside the European Union. ECHO works with about 200 non-governmental organisations, United Nations agencies and international organisations. In 2003, the main activities were a completion of ECHO s withdrawal from the Western Balkans in 2003, a continuation in its shift of emphasis towards the most vulnerable populations mainly in Africa and Asia. In sub-saharan Africa, "heavyweight" operations will be located in the Great Lakes Region (Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Tanzania), the Horn of Africa (Sudan and possibly Ethiopia/Eritrea), Coastal West Africa (Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea and possibly Ivory Coast), and Southern Africa (mainly Zimbabwe and Angola). In the NIS (Newly Independent States) region, priority was given to the crisis in the Northern Caucasus (Chechnya). ECHO s main emphasis in Asia was the Afghan crisis, as well as North Korea. Western Sahara, the Palestinian Territories and Iraq are the main hotspots in the wider Mediterranean basin. In Latin America, the operation in Colombia remains the largest on that continent. The following charts show the financial decisions of ECHO in the past few years by region. from ECHO http://europa.eu.int/comm/echo/statistics/echo_regions_en.htm

from ECHO http://europa.eu.int/comm/echo/statistics/echo_regions_en.htm Monitoring Missions A European Community Monitor Mission has existed in the Western Balkans since July 1991, which became the European Union Monitoring Mission (EUMM) 20 on 22 December 2000. During its first years, the mission was conducted through intergovernmental cooperation, but in June 2000 the organization structure changed and it now reports to the Council through High Representative Javier Solana. The particular focus of the EUMM is to monitor political and security developments as well as border monitoring, inter-ethnic issues, and refugee returns. EUMM serves as an early-warning system. EUMM coordinates its activities closely with the European Union Heads of Mission and relevant international organisations in the Western Balkans. EUMM has approximately 120 international Monitors and 75 locally employed personnel. The Mission headquarters is in Sarajevo and it operates in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, Albania and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Building on lessons learned from EUMM, work has been carried out in the Council, in cooperation with the Commission, on developing a concept for the wider use of EU monitoring missions for EU conflict prevention and crisis management. The Council is attempting to define a conceptual framework for EU fact-finding missions through the development of checklists of issues to be considered when setting up and conducting a fact-finding mission. 21 The current checklist covers questions coming under the headings of: legitimacy of the state, rule of law, respect for fundamental rights, civil society and media, relations between communities and dispute-solving mechanisms, sound economic management, social and regional inequalities, and the geopolitical situation. The Commission conducted several 20 Webpage: Hhttp://ue.eu.int/pesc/ecmmH 21 European Commission Check-list for Root Causes of Conflict: Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/cpcm/cp/list.htmH

conflict prevention assessment missions in 2002 in Nepal 22, Indonesia 23, the South Pacific (Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Fiji Islands) 24, and Sri Lanka 25. These strategy and programming missions included identification of possible conflict mitigation/prevention measures such as support to disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration processes. More missions are being planned. The EU also conducts election-monitoring missions, sending 24 since it began to do so in 2000. Regulations 975/99 and 976/99 of 29th April 1999 provide the legal basis for Community activities intended to further and consolidate democracy, the rule of law and respect for human rights. The electoral missions are now conducted under the auspices of the CFSP through DG Relex. EU military operations Since the Cologne European Council meeting in June 1999, crisis management tasks (or military intervention) have important to the strengthening of ESDP these are also known as the Petersberg tasks, formulated in the Western European Union (WEU) Ministerial Council meeting of June 1992. They are humanitarian and rescue tasks, peacekeeping tasks and combat-force tasks in crisis management, including peacemaking. The European Council has decided that, to this end, the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed up by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and a readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO. 26 Since this decision was taken at Cologne, successive European Councils have strengthened the Union s capacity for autonomous action in international crisis where NATO is not engaged authorized by the UN. The Union has tried combining the civilian instruments already at its disposal (mainly under the Commission), with the capability of using military force. In December 1999, the Helsinki European Council set the headline goal that by 2003 the Union should be able to deploy within sixty days, and sustain for at least one year, up to 60,000 troops capable of carrying out the full range of Petersberg tasks. These troops would be from member states, committed and deployed at their discretion. For the Helsinki Force Catalogue (troops and equipment voluntarily committed by the member states to the headline goal) please see the appendix. By the European Council at Laeken, on 15 December 2001, the EU was operational and able to conduct some crisis management operations, though further development was needed for more difficult operations. They thus launched a European Capability Action Plan (ECAP) to address the shortfalls in the Helsinki Force Catalogue. 22 Report: Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/cpcm/mission/nepal02.htmH 23 Report: Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/cpcm/mission/indo02.htmH 24 Report: Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/cpcm/mission/sp02.htmH 25 Report: Hhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/cpcm/mission/srila02.htmH 26 Cologne European Council declaration on strengthening the Common European Policy on Security and Defense, Annex III.

At the Nice European Council, they decided to establish new permanent political and military structures within the Council, 27 including a Political and Security Committee 28 and the High Representative for the CFSP (both discussed above). Three other structures have been set up in the Council: a Committee for civilian aspects of crisis management, a Military Committee 29, and a Political-Military Group. In addition, a military staff composed of military experts chosen by the member states has been set up under the direction of the Military Committee. Though European states participated in collective interventions authorized by the UN Security Council, and in humanitarian interventions in northern Iraq, Kosovo, and Sierra Leone in the1990s, the EU was not directly concerned with the use of armed force until 1999, during which the Cologne and Helsinki councils decided on the creation of a rapid reaction force, operational in 2003, that will carry out Petersburg missions. Policies Towards Joint Civilian Operations Also important are the developments in the civilian aspects of crisis management. The Feira European Council defined four priority areas in June 2000: police, strengthening of the rule of law, strengthening civilian administration, and civilian protection. At Feira and the European Council at Göteburg in June 2001, the EU set targets are that member states should be able to provide in these fields: 5,000 police officers for international missions and to deploy 1,000 of them within less than 30 days, 200 experts in the field of Rule of Law, a pool of experts covering a broad spectrum of functions in civilian administration, and, for civil protection, 2 or 3 assessment teams that could be dispatched within 3-7 hours as well as intervention teams of up to 2000 persons for deployment at short notice. These targets (see Appendix 2) were met and exceeded by the Ministerial Civilian Crisis Management Capability Conference on 19 November 2002. A revision of both quantitative and qualitative targets will be triggered by the addition of resources from the new member states this spring. The current presidency is trying to launch a process aiming at having the equivalent to headline goals for the civilian side. 30 Civilian personnel will be required at all stages of conflict prevention, crisis management, and post-conflict settlement. Experts will take on a broad spectrum of field functions, including for example fact-finding missions; advisory, training, and capacity building tasks; monitoring, investigation, and inquiry; as well as executive functions. Common criteria on training for EU civilian aspects of crisis management have been developed and pilot training courses for rule of law and civil management experts have been held in nine different Member States during the course of 2003. In addition, the European Council of Thessaloniki of June 2003 has given a mandate to develop a coordinated EU training policy in the field of ESDP, encompassing both civilian and military dimensions. This is being developed by the Council Secretariat separately from the Commission s project on EC Training for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management, which is discussed below in the section on CPCMU. This ESDP 27 For information and links see: Hhttp://ue.eu.int/pesc/military/en/homeen.htmH 28 Decision setting this up: Hhttp://ue.eu.int/pesc/military/en/L27-1en.pdfH 29 Report on EUMC: Hhttp://ue.eu.int/pesc/military/en/EUMC.htmH 30 Interview with Eric Wennerstrom, director EU-affairs, Folke Bernadotte Academy

training program is aimed at filling the EU Training Policy adopted last autumn, and will likely be presented in late spring this year, containing elements of police training and civil military training. 31 Last year the Council Secretariat arranged ESDP training, which is basically information about ESDP, rather than mission training. 32 Key EU bodies in the mobilization of civilian expertise for intervention in post-war states are the European Police College (CEPOL), the Council Committee for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management (CIVCOM), and the Commission s Conflict Prevention and Crisis Management Unit (CPCMU). CEPOL 33 The European Police College (CEPOL for the French acronym) was decided on at the European Council meeting in Tampere on 15 and 16 October 1999 and was established by the Council Decision of 22 December 2000 34. CEPOL is basically a network of national training institutes for senior police officers in the member states still in its first stage, it consists of existing national training institutes though the possibility of eventually establishing a permanent institution has not been precluded. CEPOL s governing board is made up of the directors of the national training institutes for senior police officers, while representatives of the General Secretariat of the Council of the European Union, the Commission, and Europol are invited to attend its meetings at non-voting observers. CEPOL is exclusively managed through the third pillar structures, i.e. the article 36 committee (CATS, or Commité Article Trente-Six). CEPOL is funded by contributions from the member states according to their GNP. Its mandate is to support and develop a European approach to the main problems facing Member States in the fight against crime, crime prevention, and the maintenance of law and order and public security, in particular the cross-border dimensions of those problems. CEPOL provides training to this end. Police training for crisis management operations will probably eventually be integrated into CEPOL, though some are concerned that because under the current Treaty CEPOL is run entirely intergovernmentally (under pillar three) this will make it difficult to integrate. 35 At present only one of the courses in CEPOL s annual work program cover matters related to crisis management operations. CIVCOM 36 The Committee for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management (CIVCOM), a Council working party, held its first meeting on 16 June 2000. It reports to the Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER) and advises the Political and Security Committee. It was formed to provide information, formulate recommendations and give advice on civilian aspects of crisis management and is in charge of developing the EU s databases and guidelines for mobilizing civilian crisis management expertise, up to now primarily the police. CIVCOM is not related to CEPOL and does not 31 Ibid. 32 Ibid. 33 Hhttp://www.cepol.net/intranet/H 34 Hhttp://www.cepol.net/intranet/plaatjes/pictemp176603.pdfH 35 Interview with Eric Wennerstrom 36 Putzel, James and Simon Stone, Mapping of Current and Planned Mechanisms for Providing Short- Term Expertise to Post-War Collapsed States, Study for the Department of International Development, April 2002.

discuss matters related to police training in CEPOL. The chairman of CIVCOM goes twice per presidency (that is, twice every six months) to CEPOL to brief the CATScolleagues on issues of mutual interest, but this is a practice started only last year and has yet to develop into true coordination. 37 CPCMU The Commission s Conflict Prevention and Crisis Management Unit was created in late 2000 to coordinate the Commission s work on conflict prevention and crisis intervention. CPCMU sits within DG Relex, under the CFSP Directorate (Directorate A). By the end of 2001, sixteen people worked within CPCMU. Though located in DG Relex, CPCMU works closely with DG Development and coordinates its work with the UN system, the World Bank, and bilateral agencies. CPCMU develops Commission policy in training civilian experts and managing rapid reaction interventions. CPCMU also manages the Rapid Reaction Mechanism (or Facility), adopted by the Council in February 2001, though the budget is relatively small (25 million euros in 2002). It covers the EU crisis management instruments including, human rights work, election monitoring, institution building, media support, border management, humanitarian missions, police training and the provision of police equipment, civil emergency assistance, rehabilitation, reconstruction, pacification, resettlement and mediation. 38 However, it cannot fund work where existing funding of ECHO is operational, nor can it undertake funding for any one project beyond six months duration, though what is and is not covered is still a matter of confusion. The CPCMU wrote a concept paper on an EC project to develop training for civilian crisis management that was endorsed by CIVCOM in October 2001. 39 The EC project on training for civilian aspects of crisis management has now been launched by the European Commission along with a network of EU training institutions and experts. 40 It offers training for judges, prosecutors, human rights observers, local administrators, social workers, teachers, and infrastructure experts on how to apply their professional training in a crisis management operation. The training will make more civilian experts available for both EU-led operations, as well as the field missions of other organizations such as the UN, the OSCE, or the Council of Europe. The project will result in a course on cooperation in ESDP missions, encompassing civil-military cooperation as seen from the civilian side (including the four priority areas defined at Feira). Focus will therefore be on situations in an imagined full-scale ESDP operation where military and civilian components work alongside, and the interfaces between the different components for which no training is currently available. 41 37 Interview with Eric Wennerstrom 38 Council Regulation (EC)No 381/2001 of 26 February 2001 creating a rapid-reaction mechanism, Official Journal of the European Communities L 57/5 27.2.2001. 39 Directorate CFSP Conflict prevention (crisis management and ACP political issues), Concept Paper for a European Community Project on Training for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management, European Commission, External Relations Directorate General, 20 September 2001. 40 Hhttp://www.aspr.ac.at/euproject/main.htmH See also Training for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management: The Role of the European Union. The International Conference on Training, Final Report, 21 22 October 2003, Rome. 41 Interview with Eric Wennerstrom

The training is delivered by different training institutions and providers in the EU that are part of the training network of the EU Group on Training (EGT). The EGT comprises the partners in the EC project on training for civilian aspects of crisis management, and represents an informal network of EU training institutions and experts active in training civilian personnel for international peace operations. The EGT promotes training cooperation with third countries and international organizations, identifies joint approaches to civilian training, and develops common training modules at the level of the EU. In 2003, the initiatives trained 264 experts in 14 pilot courses (4 Core Courses and 10 specialization courses on Rule of Law, Human Rights, Democratization and Good Governance, and Organizing Civilian Administration) organized by the partner institutes. The next phase of the project will add courses and attempt to coordinate with the military dimension of ESDP, encourage the exchange of information and cooperation between the EU and other international organizations such as the UN, the OSCE, and the Council of Europe, and enhance the EU-UN training cooperation by a EU-UN training course based on the identification of joint standards and requirements. Draft Constitution 42 The draft constitution is composed mainly of practical reform proposals, intended partly in preparation for the enlargement in May. The EU s organization and policies would be consolidated into a single constitutional treaty, rather than the patchwork of treaties that currently compose the EU s legal personality. The constitution would also make it easier for the EU to negotiate and ratify international treaties. One of the most important changes for CFSP and ESDP would be the provision for the European Council to elect a president for 2.5 years rather than the current system of a six-month rotating presidency. Besides the presidents main task to drive forward the agenda of the European Council, the president would also represent the EU externally at the topmost level, for example by visiting foreign leaders to discuss major international issues. This plan would however mean that the Commission president would no longer be able to speak for Europe in the international arena the EU s foreign policy and grand strategy would rest firmly with member-state governments. The draft proposes a simpler system for voting in most areas of EU policymaking to replace the current complicated system of qualified majority voting, but foreign policy would be notably excluded from this change. More notable is the proposition to merge the roles of Javier Solana and Chris Patten into a new post of EU minister for foreign affairs. This change would ensure that the EU s too most important external relations tools, aid and diplomacy, would work together towards the same goals. It is clear in the draft that this new foreign minister would answer to the Council of Ministers (therefore the member states, not the Commission), and would chair the meetings on foreign affairs. The decision-takers in EU foreign policy would be the national governments, voting unanimously in the Council of Ministers and the European Council. The draft does not extend the Commission s powers over foreign policy, preserving every country s right to wield a veto. 42 Text: Hhttp://european-convention.eu.int/docs/Treaty/cv00850.en03.pdfH Report on the constitution from CER: Hhttp://www.cer.org.uk/pdf/policybrief_constitution_oct03.pdfH

There are some notable advances in defence policy also proposed in the draft. First, member states could choose (though are under no obligation) to sign up to a mutual assistance clause, allowing an EU country that comes under external attack to ask for help from other members. This proposal is particularly controversial in the more Atlanticist EU countries, claiming that NATO already provides this service. Second, the draft provides for a new capabilities agency to coordinate defence, technology research, and encourage the harmonization of arms procurement procedures. It would also allow a smaller group of member states to go further on military cooperation. Though proceeding cautiously, the draft constitution makes some tentative proposals in Justice and Home Affairs including policing and border guards. These changes could eventually affect crisis management missions, with majority voting extended further over these two areas, but crisis management is not specifically discussed in the Constitution, remaining at the discretion of the member states. Negotiations on the constitution are continuing under the Irish presidency. First ESDP operation launched by the EU in 2003: EU Police Mission (EUPM) in Bosnia and Herzegovina 43 : EUPM started on 1 January 2003 as a follow on from the UN s International Police Task Force to continue to address questions of the rule of law in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is the first civilian crisis management operation under the ESDP. Some 500 police officers from more than thirty countries make up the mission, including from the 15 Member States and from 18 other countries (countries in the next enlargement: Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia; as well as Bulgaria, Canada, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, Romania, Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine). EUPM monitors, mentors, and inspects Local Police upper/mid management. The mission was established for a duration of three years, through the end of 2005. The annual budget is 38 million, of which 20 million from the Community budget. European Union Police Mission in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (Proxima) 44 : Proxima was launched on 15 December 2003, and is expected to last one year. EU police experts will monitor, mentor, and advise the country s police in order to help fight organized crime and promote European policing standards (required within the implementation of the Ohrid Framework Agreement of 2001), to enhance cooperation with neighbouring states, and to help create a border police. Proxima is part of the EU s commitment to aid Macedonia in moving closer towards EU integration. The mission comprises around 200 personnel, including 150 uniformed police and civilians, from EU Member States and other countries the ten accession countries, the three candidate countries, as well as Norway, Iceland, Canada, Russia, Ukraine, Switzerland, and the United States. 43 Briefing: Hhttp://ue.eu.int/eupm/homePage/index.asp?lang=ENH Official website: Hhttp://www.eupm.org/H 44 Hhttp://ue.eu.int/pesd/proxima/index.aspH

First Military Mission: European Union Military Operation in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (Operation Concordia) 45 : Concordia was launched on March 31, 2003, following a request by President Trajkovski and based on UN Security Council Resolution 1371. The EU-led operation immediately followed a NATO operation, which ended on March 31, 2003. The operation was initially expected to last for six months, but on July 21, 2003, the mission was extended until December 15, 2003. The goal of Concordia was to contribute to a stable secure environment and allow the implementation of the Ohrid Framework Agreement (agreed in August 2001 to secure the future of Macedonia s democracy and permit the development of closer and more integrated relations between Macedonia and the Euro-Atlantic community). The operation made use of NATO assets and capabilities, made possible by the completion of work on EU- NATO arrangements. Some 400 military personnel were involved. Alongside thirteen Member States (all with the exception of Ireland and Denmark), fourteen non-eu countries participated (Bulgaria, Canada, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Turkey). A Committee of Contributors was set up for the operation. The common budget was 6.2 million. First autonomous military operation: EU Military Operation in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) (Artemis): 46 UN Resolution 1484 authorized the deployment of an interim emergency multinational force in Bunia, the main town of the region of Ituri in North-eastern Congo. The European military force worked in coordination with the UN Mission in DRC (MONUC) to stabilize security conditions and improve the humanitarian situation in the region. The Council made the decision to launch the operation in meeting of June 5, 2003, and June 12, 2003. The operation expired on September 1, 2003. France acted as the Framework nation for the operation and provided the Operation Headquarters in Paris, while the EU s Military Committee (EUMC) monitored the operation. The size of the force was 1,800 troops, with 1,200 deployed in Bunia. Forces came from: France, Germany, Belgium, Greece, Sweden, the UK, South Africa, Brazil, and Canada (until July 5). Headquarters personnel came from: France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Spain, Greece, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden, the UK, Hungary, and Brazil. The Member States paid for the common costs of this operation. Third countries did not contribute. Helpful resources on ESDP: See report from WEU http://www.iss-eu.org/chaillot/chai45e.pdf see esp. ch 6 45 Briefing: Hhttp://ue.eu.int/arym/index.aspH Official website: Hhttp://www.delmkd.cec.eu.int/en/Concordia/main.htmH 46 EU site: Hhttp://ue.eu.int/pesd/congo/index.aspH Informative article: Hhttp://www.cer.org.uk/articles/31_keohane.htmlH

Report from ISIS: http://www.isiseurope.org/isiseu/isis%20reports/isisreports/reportdefence.pdf Reports from CER: http://www.cer.org.uk/defence/index.html

Appendix 1: Forces Contributed to Helsinki Force Catalogue 47 : [make it black, it s blue] Austria: one mechanized infantry battalion, one light infantry battalion, 1 Nuclear, Biological, Chemical Defence unit, one humanitarian civilian assistance package, one Civil-Military Cooperation (CIMIC) element, one helicopter transport squadron, one transport company, 100 observers/experts. Belgium: Land: one mechanized brigade, plus smaller units as part of humanitarian operation for up to six months. Air: 24 F-16 fighters, eight C-130 and two Airbus transports. Navy: two frigates, mine countermeasures (MCM) vessels. Denmark: No contribution; opted out of ESDP at Maastricht in 1992. Finland: Land: one mechanized infantry battalion, one engineer battalion, one transport company, one CIMIC company. Navy: one MCM command and support ship. Joint: 15-30 experts/observers. France: Land: 12,000 troops from a 20,000 pool; Mechanised, light, airborne (for a year), and amphibious brigades headquarters. Air: Combined Air Operations Center, 75 combat aircraft, eight air-refueling aircraft, three long-range and 24 medium-range transports, two Airborne Warning & Control System aircraft, combat search & rescue (CSAR) helicopters. Navy: Two battle groups, each with one nuclear attack submarine (SSN), four frigates, three support ships, and maritime patrol aircraft. One would include the nuclear powered aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle with 22 aircraft aboard. Mine countermeasures vessels. Joint: Permanent military operations headquarters at Creil if required, others at operational and tactical levels, satellite communications, reconnaissance satellites and aircraft. The Eurocorps headquarters has also been offered for the force. Germany: Land: Nucleus land component headquarters, up to 18,000 troops from a pool of 32,000 at division and brigade level, including armored, air assault, and light infantry brigade headquarters and seven combat battalions. Air: Nucleus air component headquarters, six combat squadrons with 93 aircraft, eight surface-to-air missile (SAM) squadrons, air transport, other support elements. Navy: Maritime headquarters, 13 combat ships, support. Joint: Permanent military operations headquarters at Potsdam if required, nucleus operational headquarters. Greece: Land: one operational headquarters, one mechanized or other brigade, one light infantry battalion, one attack and one transport helicopter company. Air: 42 fighter aircraft, four transport aircraft, one Patriot SAM battalion, one short-range air defence (SHORAD) squadron. Navy: Escorts, one submarine. Ireland: one light infantry battalion, 40-strong Army Ranger Wing Special Forces unit, headquarters, observer, and support elements. 850 total. 47 From Hhttp://www.cdi.org/mrp/eu.cfmH

Italy: Land: one corps-level headquarters for six months, one division headquarters for a year, 12,500 troops from a 20,000 pool (including an airmobile brigade for up to six months and three other brigades), one railway-engineering battalion, special forces, one CIMIC group, one Nuclear, Biological, Chemical Defence company. Air: a Combined Air Operations Center (air component headquarters), 26 Tornado and AMX combat aircraft, six CSAR helicopters, four C-130J transport aircraft (from 2003), nine tactical transport aircraft, two air refueling aircraft, three maritime patrol aircraft, two SHORAD units. Navy: A sea or shore-based maritime component headquarters; one task group with one aircraft carrier (Giuseppe Garibaldi), one destroyer, three frigates, four patrol ships, one submarine, four MCM ships, two amphibious ships, one oceanographic vessel, eight helicopters. Luxembourg: one reconnaissance company, one A400M transport aircraft. 100 total. Netherlands: Land: with Germany, Headquarters I German-Netherlands Corps, one mechanized Brigade, 11th Airmobile Brigade, one amphibious battalion. Air: one to two F-16 fighter squadrons; transport aircraft, SAM squadrons. Navy: Air defence and command frigates, multipurpose frigates, landing platform dock Rotterdam. Portugal: Land: one infantry brigade, including reconnaissance, armored, artillery, engineer, signals, logistics, military police, and CIMIC elements; two teams of military observers. Total 4000. Air: squadron with 12 F-16, four C-130 transports, 12 C212 tactical transports, three maritime patrol aircraft, four tactical air control parties, four medium transport helicopters. Navy: one frigate, one submarine, one survey ship, one support ship. Spain: Land: division headquarters to coordinate humanitarian operations and a brigade HQ for other operations, one brigade, mountain unit, one light infantry battalion at high readiness available as an immediate reaction force. Air: one Mirage F-1 squadron, one F/A-18 squadron each of 12 aircraft, six transport aircraft, two each surveillance, electronic warfare, and strategic transport aircraft (A400M). Navy: one carrier group including carrier Principe de Asturias, two frigates and support ships, one submarine, one MCM ship, Spanish-Italian Amphibious Force (SIAF). Sweden: One mechanized infantry battalion including intelligence, electronic warfare/signals, reconnaissance, engineer, and explosive ordinance disposal units. Air: tactical reconnaissance element of four AJS 37 Viggen to be replaced in 2004 by four JAS 39 Gripen multirole fighters, one airbase unit (225 personnel), four C-130 transport aircraft. Navy: two corvettes, one support ship. United Kingdom: Joint: Permanent Joint HQ (Northwood) if required, at least one mobile joint headquarters, including a Combined Air Operations Center (CAOC). Land: either an armored or a mechanized brigade, each of which could be sustained for at least a year, or 16 th Air Assault Brigade, which could be deployed for up to six months. Combat support forces such as artillery, air defence, and attack helicopters could also be deployed, supported by logistics forces. Total 12,500. Navy: one aircraft carrier, two SSNs, up to four destroyers or frigates, and support vessels. An amphibious task group including one helicopter carrier and 3rd Commando Brigade could also be made available. The aircraft carrier, helicopter carrier, and submarines

could not necessarily be sustained continuously for a whole year. Air: up to 72 combat aircraft, including naval fighters, with 58 associated support aircraft including 15 tankers, strategic transport aircraft, and Chinook and Merlin transport helicopters. This total would be available for an initial six months to cover initial theatre entry; for a longer term commitment the number would reduce. Appendix 2: Targets in the field of Policing CONTRIBUTIONS TOWARDS THE CONCRETE TARGETS FOR 2003 The current data comes from the the Ministerial Police Capabilities Commitment Conference on 19 November 2001: Overall Rapid Member State capability Deployment BELGIUM 130 10 IPU 48 DENMARK 125 25 GERMANY 910 90 GREECE 180 20 SPAIN 500 300 2 FRANCE Gendarmerie Nationale Police Nationale 600 210 300 3 1 IRELAND 80 80 ITALY 971 242 6 LUXEMBOURG 6 1 NETHERLANDS Civilian Police Royal Marechaussee 30 103 20 AUSTRIA 110 20 Guarda Nacional Republicana 160 1 PORTUGAL Policia Segurança Pública 173 200 Policia Judiciária 17 FINLAND Civilian Police Frontier Guard 70 5 15 SWEDEN 170 50 UNITED KINGDOM 450 40 TOTAL 5.000 1.413 13 FEIRA OBJECTIVES REACHED + 413 48 IPU: Integrated Police Unit, the size of these units range from 70 to 120 depending on the country.