UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 1. Army.

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 1 GENERAL Area....... 21,352,572 sq.km. Population (I 7. XII. 26)...... 147,013,600 per sq. km...... 6.9 Length of operated railway lines... 75,721 km. I. Army. A. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MILITARY SYSTEM OF THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS The military system of the Union was completely changed in I925. According to the report submitted to the Third Assembly of the Soviets of the Union on May I9th, I925, by the People's Commissary for Military and Naval Affairs 2, the reorganisation of the military system of the Union is necessitated by the impossibility of giving military training to the whole of the annual contingent of men of military age within the limits of the present permanent army. The military system of the Union combines the principles of a permanent army and. a militia. The regular army of 562,000 men, by a system of two years' service with the colours, is capable of absorbing and training an annual maximum of 270,000 men ; the annual contingent of recruits, however, is 1,200,000ooo; excluding from this number 300-350,000 as being unfit for military service there remain 850-900,000 liable to military service. The main principle of this system of territorial militia is to ensure preparatory military training. 842,000 men are receiving this training in 4,500 training centres (I926). The territory of the Union is divided 1 The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics includes the Federative Socialist Republic of Russian Soviets, the Socialist Republic of the Soviets of the Ukraine, the Socialist Republic of the Soviets of White Russia; the Federative Socialist Republic of the Soviets of Transcaucasia (Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia); the Turcoman Soviet Republic and the Usbeg Soviet Republic. 2 See Izvestia of May 22nd, 1925, and March 4 th, I926.

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 819 for the purpose into a number of areas (divisional, department or army corps areas); their head authority for purposes of registration and mobilisation is the district Commissariat. The Red Army of workmen and peasants of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics includes (i) the army; (2) the navy; (3) the air force. The Red Army also contains units for special purposes, such as: (i) the troops of the Staff Political Department; (2) the Union Horse Guards. All citizens i may be required to defend the Union, but the military defence of the country falls exclusively upon the workmen ; those who do not belong to the working-class pay a special tax and are called upon in peace-time to perform certain duties ; in time of war they serve in special commands. The Red Army consists of' (i) permanent cadres; (2) militia forces known as territorial units. The latter are built up on the militia system and are called territorial because each of them is assigned to an -area in which its effectives are recruited. Each territorial unit consists of: (i) cadres (permanent units); (2) mobile units. The cadres of the territorial units are 'constituted in accordance the with militia system; in peace-time they do not make up complete organic units, although their effectives are larger than those of militia ordinary units. Men belonging to the cadres of the territorial units serve uninterrupted for an period with the regular army; their function is to men train belonging to the mobile units and men who receive preparatory military training or training outside the army. Mobile units annual receive training with the cadres; in the intervals they are given their military training in their home district. Military training the army outside is given to citizens who belong neither to the regular nor army to the territorial army. B. SUPREME MILITARY AUTHORITY AND ITS ORGANS For the external defence of its territory, the Union possesses common military forces under a single command. Women are allowed to serve as volunteers, but for special work (doctors, nurses, etc) in war-time they may be conscripted.

8t20 UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS I. CONGRESS OF THE SOVIETS. The Congress of the Soviets of the Union and, failing it, the Central Executive Committee of the Union, are the supreme authorities of the Union; they are competent to deal with the following military questions : the declaration of war, the conclusion of peace, the approval of the State budget, and the organisation and control of the military forces of the Union. 2. COUNCIL OF PEOPLE'S COMMISSARIES. The Council of People's Commissaries is designated by the Central Executive Committee, the decisions of which it executes. 3. COUNCIL FOR LABOUR AND NATIONAL DEFENCE. The Council for Labour and National Defence was established in order to co-ordinate the activities of all public bodies in the sphere of national defence and in that of national economics. The Council for Labour and National Defence, which is under the Council of People's Commissaries, consists of 8 members appointed by the Council of People's Commissaries. It is presided over by the President of the Council of People's Commissaries. 4- PEOPLE'S COMMISSARIAT FOR MILITARY AND NAVAL AFFAIRS. At the head of the armed forces of the Union is the People's Commissary for Military and Naval Affairs, who is at the same time president of the Revolutionary Military Council. The People's Commissary for Military and Naval Affairs has under his direct orders : (i) the Army Staff; (2) the central army command; (3) the political army command; (4) the military air force command (5) the military and naval forces of the army; (6) the chief of army supplies (7) the health command; (8) the veterinary command. The Central Army Command deals with all questions concerning military training, military service, the welfare of the army and its general economic administration. It includes a number of inspectorates (cavalry, artillery, chemical preparation, engineering, signalling) and is responsible for the administration of military training establishments. The Political command is responsible for the political training of the army. It deals with all questions relating to the political personnel of the Red Army and controls its activities. The military air force command is the supreme organisation in regard to military aviation. Its Commander-in-Chief also commands the whole of the military air forces of the Red Army. At the head of the military and naval command is a chief of the military and naval forces of the Red Army, who has under his command a number of central military and naval organs dealing with special questions connected with command.

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 821 The Chief of Supplies for the Red Army is in supreme command of the economic administration of the army and of army supplies. He has under his orders: (I) the army intendance command; (2) the artillery command; (3) the chemical warfare command; (4) the technical military command (5) the military construction (6) the military finance. 5. THE REVOLUTIONARY MILITARY COUNCIL OF THE UNION OF SOCIALIST SOVIET REPUBLICS. The Revolutionary Military Council of the Union is a supreme military organ which controls the Red Army, the Navy, the Air Force and all the military administrative organisations. Until I922 the Revolutionary Military Council controlled the affairs of the army through the Pan-Russian General Staff; later, through the Army General Staff, which in I924 was divided into the Staff of the Army and Central Army Command. 6. THE COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. The Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces of the Union is appointed and dismissed by the Council of People's Commissaries. Within the limits of the decisions of the higher authorities of the Union, the Commander-in-Chief enjoys complete autonomy in all strategical questions, provided he reports his decisions to the People's Commissary and to the Revolutionary Military Council of the Union. The following are under the orders of the Commander-in-Chief, as defined in special regulations (a) The Deputy Commander-in-Chief for Naval Affairs, as regards all operations questions; (b) The Deputy Commander-in-Chief for the cavalry; (c) The staff of the army; (d) The inspectorate of the army medical corps (e) The officer in charge of military training establishments; (f) The officer in charge of the artillery, who is also the head of the principal artillery command' (g) The head of the engineers command; (h) The head of the veterinary command; (i) All military academies. The following are also directly under the orders of the Commander-in-Chief: A s regards military operations : (a) All army commanders in the military frontier districts and the commanders of independent armies; (b) The air department; (c) The officer commanding the organs of the Union engaged upon special missions. Generally, and through the intermediary of army commanders: The fortresses and fortified.districts throughout the territory of the Union.

822' UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST. REPUBLICS 7. STAFF OF THE ARMY. At the head of the Staff of the Red Army is the Chief of Staff, who is appointed by the Revolutionary Military. Council. A Commissary for War, appointed by the Revolutionary Military Council, is accredited- to the staff of the Red Army. The Staff of the Army is commanded by the Chief of Staff, the Deputy Chief of Staff and two Assistant Chiefs. The Staff comprises six departments: (i) Operations, (2) Intelligence, (3) Mobilisation, (4) Military Topography, (5) Military Communications, (6) Military Strategy and Tactics. 8. POLITICAL ORGANS OF MILITARY ADMINISTRATION. (I) Political Command of the Revolutionary Council of the Union. The Political command constitutes the supreme political organ and directs all political activity in the army. It is competent in questions concerning the training of political cadres, political direction, the army press, the organisation of military propaganda among the people, etc. (2) Revolutionary military councils in the military areas. These councils centralise the direction of political activity, strategy and military organisation within their different military areas. (3) Army corps political secretariats attached to the territorial district departments. (4) Political sections of infantry and. cavalry divisions and of independent cavalry brigades, territorial infantry divisions and garrison units. These sections are responsible in particular for the political training of future recruits. (5) Political organ attached to various army units (regiments, etc.). 9. DELEGATES OF THE PEOPLE'S COMMISSARIAT ON THE COUNCILS OF THE PEOPLE'S COMMISSARIES OF THE ALLIED REPUBLICS AND ON LOCAL ORGANS. The Delegates of the People's Commissariat for the Military and Naval Affairs of the Union on the Councils of the People's Commissaries of the Allied Republics are appointed according to the general regulations governing the People's Commissaries of the Union.and are under the direct orders of the People's Commissariat for the Military and Naval Affairs of the Union. The local organs of military and naval administration throughout the territory of the Union receive instructions from the People's Commissary for the Military and Naval Affairs of the Union and are directly under the latter. The military districts are administered by Army. Commanders, who are appointed by the Revolutionary Military Council of the Union. In special cases the Revolutionary Military Council may establish Revolutionary Military Councils in 'these districts. The rights and duties, as well as the composition, of the Army Command and of the Military Councils of the districts are determined by the Revolutionary Military Council of the Union. The rights, duties and composition of the local military and naval organs are determined, in accordance with the laws in force, by the Revolutionary Military Council.

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 823 C. COMPOSITION OF THE RED ARMY IN PEACE-TIME The Red Army is divided in peace-time into: (i) Field troops; (2) Training detachments; (3) Auxiliary troops for service behind the front line; (4) Special troops comprising: (a) The troops of the Political Department; (b) Frontier Guards; (c) Detachments for special purposes. '(i) The field troops or troops in the Active Army are organised in units possessing fairly large cadres. The fortress garrisons also form part of the field troops. (2) The training detachments are employed for the training of the cadres 'and [the troops; they train the future instructors and specialists and they are responsible for the training of the horses. In the event of war, these detachments may be used as cadres for the creation of new units. (3) The auxiliary detachments intended for service behind the front line are composed of men fit for military service whom it is not desirable to employ in the Field Army -because they belong to the bourgeoisie. Labour companies varying in number are established for this purpose in each military district. These detachments are not formed into units larger than a company. (4) The special troops are under the Commissariat for War as re-. gards recruiting, organisation, equipment, supply, military training and effectives. As regards their use, they are under the competent civil authorities. (a) The troops of the State Political Department are divided into battalions, companies, squadrons and half-companies, which are organised on the same lines as the corresponding units of the Red Army. Most of these troops are composed of volunteers who have served in the Red Army. They have staffs and commanders in the military districts. (b) The frontier guard troops are responsible for protecting the property of inhabitants in the frontier districts, putting a stop to smuggling, preventing the unlawful crossing of the frontier, etc. They constitute an independent unit, divided into three districts, which are subdivided into sectors and sub-sectors. They are formed into battalions, companies, squadrons and half-companies. They are organised in the same way as the corresponding units of the Red Army. The frontier guard troops are composed mainly of volunteers. (c) At the head of the detachments for special duties is an officer, assisted by a staff. In the military districts and in the departments, these detachments are placed under the orders of the military commanders of the districts or departments. They consist mainly of communists and are formed into independent battalions and squadrons organised in the same way as in the Red Army.

824 UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS This category of troops also includes the detachments for special purposes attached to the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party. D. TERRITORIAL MILITARY AREAS The territory of the Union is divided into ten military areas. The areas are so organised that they can be placed upon a war footing in a very short space of time. The military areas are as follows: Chief town (i) Moscow area.,... Moscow. (2) Leningrad area.... Leningrad. (3) Volga area.... Samara. (4) Ukraine area..... Kharkov. (5) Area of the Northern Caucasus.... Rostov. (6) White Russian area... Smolensk. (7) Middle Asia area......... Tashkent. (8) Siberian area...... Novo Sibirsk. (g) Army of the Red Flag of the Caucasus. Tiflis. (Io) Cossack Military Commissariat... Ksil-Orda. TERRITORIAL MILITARY AREAS. Cr/ GV AC It P Cn an a. Where no sc... e, its place ic o Cn actig a th supreme Military Alreas Boundaries. the he of te a e Revo lutionary Military Comp~ositiont o~f mzilitaryo areas s At the head. of certain military areas is a Revolutionary Military no such Council exists, its place is taken by the Officer commanding the armed forces of the area. The Revolutionary Military Council

'UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 825 is presided over by the Officer commanding the armed forces of the area. The Revolutionary Military Council of the area is under the direct authority of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Union ; it is responsible for the general political as well as military direction of the area, and provides liaison between the military area and the organs of the Government situated in that area. It is also responsible for making preparations for mobilisation, for army training and for inspections; in addition it directs the military training of citizens outside the army. Each military area comprises: (i) The general staff of the area; (2) Political department; (3) Command of the air forces of the area; (4) Officer commanding the artillery of the area; (5) Officer commanding the engineers; (6) Officer commanding the signalling service; (7) Officer commanding the chemical'service; (8) Officer commanding the supply service; (g) Medical corps command; (io) Veterinary command; (ii) Military court. E. HIGHER UNITS 1 The higher units of the Red Army are the following: (i) Infantry divisions; (2) Infantry corps; (3) Cavalry divisions (independent calvary brigades), and (4) Cavalry corps. Each of these units comprises a command, with a commander, a military commissary and. a certain number of formations. The command of an infantry division comprises : (i) Staff, (2) Political section, (3) Officer in command of divisional artillery, (4) Divisional engineer, (5) Chemical Service section with its commanding officer, (6) Health Service, (7) Veterinary Service, (8) Intendance Service, (9) Signalling Service, (io) Physical training instructors. 1 The official documents which the Secretariat has been able to obtain do not give the number of the higher and lower units. According to unqfficial publications, the Red Army is composed of 29 infantry divisions, 37 territorial divisions ; I2 divisions of cavalry, and 9 cavalry brigades (being a total of 594 light infantry-battalions, 455 cavalry squadrons and 66 independent squadrons attached to divisions). The Artillery is composed of 66 regiments of light artillery, 12 groups and 9 batteries of horse artillery, 21 sections (" divisions ") of heavy artillery and several independent regiments of heavy artillery. The accuracy of these figures cannot be vouched for.

826' UNION OF SOVIET SOCIAL[ST REPUBLICS The command of an infantry corps only comprises: (I) Staff, (2) Officer in command of artillery, (3) An engineer officer, (4) Officer in command of signalling service. The commands of cavalry divisions and corps are practically the same as those of the other units. In/antry Corps. An infantry corps consists of two or three infantry divisions, one regiment (or one group) of heavy field artillery, one independent engineer battalion, one independent signalling battalion or company and one independent engineer company. Infantry Division. An infantry division consists of three regiments, one cavalry squadron, one light artillery regiment, one independent signalling company and one independent engineering company. Cavalry Corps. A cavalry corps consists of two or three cavalry divisions, one independent mounted howitzer group and one independent signalling squadron. Cavalry Division. A cavalry division consists of four or six cavalry regiments grouped into two regiments per brigade, one horse artillery group, one engineer squadron and one independent signalling squadron. Independent Cavalry Brigade. A cavalry brigade consists of three regiments, one horse artillery group, half a squadron of engineers and half a signalling squadron, these last three units being independent. In time of war these units serve to constitute armies and army groups. F. ARMS AND SERVICES Infantry. There are two kinds of infantry regiment (i) the cadre regiments; (2) t.he territorial regiments. The cadre regiments consist of: (i) The regimental command, at the head of which is the commander of the regiment with a military commissary and his deputies; a deputy commander for intendance and his assistants, a chief of chemical services with a chemical section, an officer in charge of the training of engineers and a chief medical officer with his deputies.

-UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 827 (2) The Staff, consisting of the Chief of Staff and his deputies. (3) Three battalions of four companies, of which one is a machinegun company divided into three groups with two machine-guns each, and an artillery section (2 guns). Each infantry company is divided into three sections of five groups, of which two are machine-gun groups. Each company also includes a machine-gun group (2 machine-guns) and an administrative section. (4) A group of regimental artillery with two batteries of three guns each. (5) Regimental school. The territorial regiment has only a limited cadre consisting of the same organic units as those of the regular regiments, the sole difference being that some of these units consist of one or two men only. When mobile units are called up to attend a training course, the effectives of the territorial regiment are equal to those of a regiment on a war footing. Apart from the divisional units there are certain independent infantry battalions and companies. Cavalry. The cavalry regiment consists of: (i) A command, at the head of which are a commander and a military commissary. (2) An administrative department. (3) Five squadrons, of which one is a machine-gun squadron. Each squadron consists of four platoons of two groups, one being a- machinegun platoon. The machine-gun squadron also consists of four platoons each having four machine-guns. The territorial regiment consists of the same units as the regular regiment. Further, there are independent cavalry squadrons made up in almost the same way as divisional squadrons. Artillery. The artillery of the Red Army is divided into (i) Small calibre artillery (attached to battalions), (2) Regimental artillery, (3) Light field artillery, tillery, ( artillery, (5) Light field howitzer artillery, (6) Heavy field. artillery, (7) Heavy field howitzer artillery, (8) Horse artillery, (9) Mountain horse artillery, (io) Howitzer artillery (horse), (ii) Heavy artillery, (12) Heavy howitzer artillery, (I3) Anti-aircraft artillery, (i4) Trench artillery. The last four types of artillery are usually organised as independent units. The light field artillery, mountain artillery, horse artillery and anti-: aircraft artillery are armed with 76 mm. guns ; the howitzer artillery with guns of 122 and 144 mm. and the heavy artillery with guns of o07 and 155 mm. ;the heavy howitzers have 205 and 260 mm. guns. The organic units of artillery are (i) the regiment; (2) the independent artillery group and (3) the independent artillery battery.

828 UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS The artillery regiment (heavy and light artillery) consists of (i) The command, at the head of which are the regimental commander and a military commissary; (2) The administration of the regiment; (3) Two or four groups; each group has 3 or 4 batteries of 3 guns each. The composition of the independent artillery groups and batteries does not materially differ from that of the regimental units. A rmoured Units. The armoured. units are divided into three groups (i) Armoured trains; (2) Armoured cars; (3) Tanks. (I) Armoured Trains. Armoured. trains include: (i) front-line units and (2) base units. Among the front-line units are the armoured engines and two or three armoured wagons with guns. The base unit consists of 20 to 25 trucks. The front-line units are armed with 2 or 4 76 mm. guns and 6 machineguns, or with one gun of Io7 mm. (sometimes supplemented by a 76 mm. gun) and two machine-guns. (2) Armoured Cars. These units are organised in groups of 3 to 5 cars each. (3) Tanks. Tanks are grouped in regiments. Each regiment contains a number of battalions divided into companies and platoons, each having three to five tanks. Engineers. The engineers are formed into battalions, companies and. independent squadrons ; there are also railway regiments, bridging battalions, independent electro-technical battalions and motor-car and motor-bicycle regiments, as well as independent camouflage companies. The battalions consist of two or three companies. The railway regiment has four battalions (two operating and -two building companies). Signalling. The signalling service is made up of regiments of two or three battalions with from two to five companies, independent battalions containing three companies, independent companies with three or five platoons, independent squadrons consisting of three platoons, independent wireless battalions with three companies and. wireless regiments consisting of two to three battalions of two to five companies each. Gas. This service is organised in technical battalions and experimental battalions. Each group has an administrative section, a number of companies for the discharge of gas and some flame-throwing companies.

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 829 A viation. The air forces consist of independent bombing, fighting and reconnaissance flights, groups of fighlter and reconnaissance machines, naval aviation units and independent balloon groups. A flight consists of three to five groups, each group possessing six to twelve machines. The independent reconnaissance and. fighting group has six or twelve machines; the independent balloon group consists of a station with one balloon in active service and one in reserve. Military aviation from 1920 to 1926: (Percentages of the year 1920.) % 1920.................. 00 1923...... 136 1924............. 216 925................... 404 1926................ 12 Air and Chemical Defence " Osoaviachim " Association. This association was formed by the fusion of the three following societies Society of Friends of the Air Fleet; Society for the encouragement of aviation and the chemical industry; Society for the encouragement of national defence. The duty of the " Osoaviachim " is to co-operate in the defence of the U.S.S.R. and to develop those industries which are the most important and indispensable from the economic and technical points of view and for the defence of the country; in particular, the aeronautical and chemical industries. The association co-operates with the Red Army for the purpose of adding to its power as a combative weapon and aiding materially in the defence of the country. The whole of the military activities of the association are exercised through the Red Army command. On October Ist, 1927, the " Osoaviachim " had. 2,950,000 members (I5.7 % women) divided into 42,000 " cells " (in 1926, 34,064). The number of military " corners " is 9,498 (in 1926, 6,506) ; the number of military study clubs is 9,240 compared with 5,651 in 1926 ; rifle clubs, which in 1926 did not exist, numbered on October Ist, 1927, 7,815. In 1926, 923 clubs existed for the study 'of aviation and chemistry; now there are only 800. In 1927, chemical laboratories numbered 184 as compared with 60 in 1926. At the same date there were 52 clubs and museums, 68 permanent exhibitions, and. 5,530 libraries. There are now 766 clubs for air sports, compared with 1,106 in 1926. Social composition of the " Osoaviachim " Association. 1926 1927 (per cent) Workmen.... 36.7 37.2 Peasants... 15.2 21.0 Employees... 30.0 26.5 Students....... 6.7 Soldiers... 9.4 7.1 Miscellaneous....... I.2 I.5 I00 1oo

830 UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS In 1927, I7.4 per cent of the association's members belonged to the communist party (in 1926, 17 %). Numerical composition of the different groups and clubs. Percentage of Members members of the association Military study clubs... 35,27 8. Military rifle clubs.o... 16,o68 3 5 Rifle clubs... 8 3 8 Clubs for the study of aviation and chemistry..... 1,619 o.6 Air sport clubs....,570 0.4 Aerochemical units and commands.. 25,623 0.9 Other units.... 5,225 0.2 Total.... 514,820 17.4 To sum up, it may be said that this association counts among its members 3,000,000 out of a total population of I50,00,00ooo, while I7.4 % take an active part in its work. Of these 3,000,000 members, 68I,ooo are peasants divided into 16,840 "cells ". As the U.S.S.R. has altogether 307,443 villages, there is only one " cell " of the association to every 23 villages. The budget of the association for I926-27 is 5,484,345 roubles. The estimates for I927-28 are 8,447,839 roubles. G. RECRUITING SYSTEM I. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE. All citizens of the Union are liable to compulsory military service. Only workers may be entrusted with the armed defence of the Union. The rest of the population is placed in a special reserve and, in peacetime, pays a military tax. In time of war they form special workmen's commands. Compulsory military service, which begins at the age of 19 and lasts till the close of the fortieth year, is divided up as follows Preparatory military training; Service with the colours; Service in the reserve. (a) Preparatory military training. All males on completing their nineteenth year are liable until the age of 20 to a period of preparatory military training lasting for two months. (b) Service with the colours. Citizens who have completed their twenty-first year are called upon to serve for five years. Such service is performed in the regular army, or in territorial mobile formations or, finally, outside the army.

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832 UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS Military service with the colours in regular units consists of an uninterrupted period of two, three or four years in the Red Army, according to the arms, and long furlough of one, two or three years subject to recall for one or two months' service. Active service in the mobile territorial units is performed in the following manner: I During the first year, a period of three months' training. 2. During the four succeeding years men are recalled for peliods of : (a) not more than five months in all (not more than one month on each occasion) in the infantry and artillery; (b) not more than eight months in all (not more than two months in any one year) in the cavalry; (c) not more than six months in all (not more than two months in any one year) in the special territorial units. In addition, men may be recalled each year in the intervals between the above periods for a short repetition course not exceeding seven days. For the remainder of their service - during the Ist, 2nd, 3rd, 4 th and 5th year of their active service - men belonging to mobile territorial units are sent on leave ; while thus situated, they may be required to carry out certain military duties which do not oblige them to leave their homes or interrupt their ordinary work. Men who perform their active military service elsewhere than in the cadres receive military training in the form of periodical courses lasting not more than six months in all (not more than two months in any one year). (c) The Reserve. Having completed their active service, men are placed in the reserve. The reserve Army consists of the first reserve up to the age of 34 and the second reserve up to the age of 40. Men belonging to the reserve may be called upon to attend repetition courses not exceeding a total of three months for the whole of the time they belong to the reserve (a maximum of one month in the year). The rank and file and the lower ranks of the regimental staff may be allowed, on request, after completing their active service in the cadres of the army, to re-engage in the Red Army, as supernumeraries. The same rule applies to men who are away on long leave. They must re-engage for not less than one year, after the expiration of which they may have their engagements renewed, on request, for further periods but not beyond the age of 46. II. EXEMPTION FROM SERVICE FOR FAMILY REASONS. In time of peace, men liable for military service with the colours may, under certain conditions, be excused service in the regular army for special family reasons ; men belonging to this class perform their military service in the territorial mobile formations; they can also be given their military training outside the army.

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 833 III. EXEMPTION FROM MILITARY SERVICE - ON RELIGIOUS GROUNDS. Citizens who, by birth or education, are members of families belonging to certain religious sects may be excused from compulsory military service. If declared " fit for service with the colours " after passing their medical examination, they are liable for two years to perform certain public services (during epidemics, outbreaks of epizootic disease, etc.). In time of war they are drafted into special workmen's formations. IV. POSTPONEMENT. School teachers, students, and teachers at higher educational establishments, who are liable to service with the colours, may secure postponement to enable them to complete their studies. V. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RECRUITS. As soon as they have passed their medical examination, men are drafted into the regular army or into the territorial mobile formations in an order determined by lot. Within each of the categories determined by the drawing of lots, the contingent is made up by first taking the fit men who cannot claim exemption on any grounds and then, if necessary, supplementing their number by men supporting a family, these being called upon according to their family situation. Men who do not belong to the contingent of the active army or the territorial mobile formations are given their military training outside the army. VI. MILITARY SERVICE OF STUDENTS OF COLLEGES OR HIGHER EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENTS. Pupils of the higher grade schools and technical schools receive advanced preparatory military instruction. This instruction consists of theoretical studies for a minimum period of 80o hours and practical training for two months. Young men who have received the advanced military instruction perform their military service in the cadres of the Red Army; after 9 months' service (or 12 months, in the Navy and the Air Force) and after passing an examination, they are transferred to the medium category of the regimental staff. Pupils who have passed through the courses in the Workers Universities - in the secondary schools or schools of equivalent grade - perform their military service in the cadres of the army; after serving for two years and passing an examination they are transferred to the medium category of the regimental staff. VII. VOLUNTEERS. Men between S8 and 34 may be enlisted as volunteers. Men accepted for voluntary military service remain in the active army for one year. In principle, voluntary service. does not exempt from service in the active army. VIII. MOBILISATION. Men belonging to the regular army or the mobile territorial formations who are on leave, men who are performing their military service 53

834 UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS without being in the army, and also reservists, may be mobilised in the event of war. Mobilisation is decreed by the Councils of Commissaries of the Union. Men allowed postponement are exempted from mobilisation; they may be called up by a special decree. The mobilisation of the following may be postponed: (a) Workmen and employees in factories, workshops and establishments engaged in supply work for the Red Army; (b) Workmen and employees in the transport and communication services ; (c) The employees in the different branches of State political administration ; (d) Skilled workmen and employees in workshops, factories and establishments manufacturing articles of primary necessity for the population (e) The responsible officials of certain Union administrations; (f) Certain professors of teaching establishments. IX. CADRES. The cadres include : (a) regimental staff, (b) political staff, (c) administrative staff, (d) medical staff and (e) veterinary staff. The regimental cadres include subaltern, middle-grade, senior and higher personnel. The subaltern personnel is recruited from among men who have received the necessary training during their service in units of the Red Army. The other grades are recruited from among soldiers who have received middle-grade, advanced or special military training or who have had military experience. The age-limit for middle-grade personnel is fixed at 40 ; for the other grades at between 45 and 50. After reaching the age-limit, the middle-grade, senior and higher personnel pass into the reserve, where they remain until they are 50, 55 or 60 according to their category. The middle-grade and senior personnel of the reserve are employed to train men who are performing their service outside the army, for a maximum period of twelve months. They may also be called up for further training. The junior regimental staff and supernumeraries of the regimental staff who have served for a minimum period of three years and. fulfil certain conditions may be transferred to the Reserve in the category of medium regimental staff. The same rule applies to the rank and file, who may, subject to the same conditions, be transferred to the Reserve in the category of the junior regimental staff. Army officers are trained in the different army schools. These consist of: (i) Military schools for the different army units for the purpose of training subaltern personnel.

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 835 The period of training in these schools is 8 months for the infantry, artillery, engineers and signalling service, 7 months for the cavalry and io 'months for mechanical transport services. There are also a number of schools outside the army for the training of subaltern personnel. (2) Military schools. These schools admit other ranks, non-commissioned officers and middle-grade personnel who have not received training in a military school. The period of study is from 3 to 4 years. (3) Advanced courses. These courses are intended for middle-grade and senior officers of the Red Army who receive advanced training in their different special branches. The length of the course is one year. (4) Military colleges (academies). These colleges are for middle-grade officers who fulfil certain conditions. They are intended for the training of senior officers. The present military colleges and courses are as follows i. The Red Army Military College for higher general military training. 2. The Technical Military College. 3. The Naval College. 4. The Army Medical College. 5. The Political Military College. 6. The Military Section of the Leningrad Electro-Technical Institute. 7. The Military Communications Section of the Leningrad Institute of Roads and Bridges. 8. The Intendance Section of the National Economic Institute. 9. The Army Geodesic Section of the Moscow Institute. io. The Army Section of the Kazan Veterinary Institute. The period of study at these schools is from 3 to 6 years. H. EFFECTIVES OF THE RED ARMY (ooo's omitted) REGIMENTAL STAFF AND MEN. May I918...... o6 October 918......... 350 January ii.... 435 June 1919... 1,500 August 28th, 92o... 3,538 January ist, 1921.... 4, May ist, 1st, 1921 rgz....... 2,64 2,614 January Ist, 1922...,590 I923.............703 1924 1924.562....................... 562 I925....................... 562 1926....... - 562 1927......... 562

836 UNION, OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS REGIMENTAL (I927) STAFF 23,889 officers who have passed the normal military school. 4, 125,,,,,,, short course for officers. 7,34I,,,,, advanced courses. 2,1261,,,,,, through military academies. 4,48,,,, had received their whole military training in the old army (ex-officers). 3,968 officers who had. not received adequate military preparation (ex-non-commissioned officers, etc.). 45,867 As regards its political composition the regimental Staff included in 1921 : 20 % communists and 80 % not belonging to any party. In i927 it included 48.I % communists; 4.8 % junior communists; and 47.i % not belonging to any political party. II. Navy. LIST OF UNITS (1927) (Navies of the Union of- Soviet Socialist Republics.) BALTIC, ETC., FLEET. NOTA. - The first date in brackets gives the date of the launching of the: ship ; the second that of its completion. The dash (-) signifies that the construction has not yet been completed or that the date of completion is not known. Battleships: i. Pariskaia-Kommuna -2.M11at -(I9II-) 4) 3. Oktiabrskat a- Normal displacement 23,370 tons. Length: 594 feet. Beam : 87 feet. Mean draught: 27 1/ feet. H.P. 4. Revolutia (I91I-14) Mikhaf1 FrunF-e 42,000 = 23 kts. Guns 12 I2-inch.; i6 4.7-inch ; 2 3-inch (anti-aircraft) ; 4 torpedo-tubes (I8-inch.). (1911-15) Cruisers I. Sovnarkomn (1915-25) Displacement: 7,600 tons. Length: 5073/4 feet. Beam: 50 /3 feet. Draught: 18 /3 feet. H.P. 50,000 = 29.5 kts. Guns : 5 5.I-inch; 4 4-inch (anti-aircraft); 4 3-inch; 2 torpedo-tubes. Can carry ioo mines. 1 This number includes 465 who had passed through the Military Academy in the old army.

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS '837 2. Pro/intern (190o6-o8 Normal displacement : 15,190 tons. Length: 529 feet. Beam : 75 feet. Mean draught : 26 feet. H.P. I9,700-21 kts. Guns : 4 io-inch ; 8 8-inch ; 20 4.7-inch; 2 torpedo-tubes (i8-inch). 3. S.S.S.R. (I9oo0-03)1 6,830 tons. Dimensions : 410 x 55 x 21% feet (mean draught). H.P. II,6oo = 20 kts. Guns: o 6-inch; 5 6-pdr. 13 destroyers 2: Date Displace- Max. O Tubes, Max. of launching ment speed Mines draught tons Kts tons feet -2 Uritsky.. 1912-15 i,6io 32,000 35 400 9/80 91/4 2 Karl Marx. 1I912-23 1,350 32,700 35 15o 9/8 /80 98 5 Trotsky... 1912-23 1,260 30,000 35 150 9/80 93/4 4 Sladkow.. 1904-07 580 6,500 25 205 3/25 81/2 8 submarines: (+ 4 building or completing). No. Type Date Displace- P Max. Tubes, Max. of launching ment speed and Gear draught 4 Building.... 850 Io. I Rabotchi { 90 4. 2% go900 9 i Proletari. I ~ Proletari....... 1912-17 1 { {665o' 78 2,640 i6 90 12 784 goo 9 ) /2 6 Bolshevik.... 00 I } 8 2 900 9 I'2 tons Miscellaneous : 32 different units (gunboats, armoured gunboats, mine-layers). Kts. Cruisers: BLACK SEA FLEET. i. Tchervonaya Ukraina Displacement: 7,000 tons. Length: 5073/4 feet. (1915-20) Beam : 495/8 feet. Draught: I81/ feet. H.P. 55,000 = 29.75 kts. Guns : I5 5I-inch ; 4 3-inch, A.A., 2 torpedo-tubes (I8-inch). Can carry ioo mines. 2. Komintern (1905-) 6,750 tons. Dimensions : 436 X 54 X 20o/2 feet. H.P. I9,500 = 23 kts. Guns : i6 6-inch; 2 ii-pdr. 2 torpedo-tubes (i8-inch). 3 destroyers i. Petrovsky (I917) Displacement: 1,325 tons. Dimensions: 303 '/2 X 291/2 2. Shaumyan (1917) X 9 feet. Guns : 4 4-inch; 4 9-pdr., I 9-pdr. A.A. 3. Nezamoshnik (19i7) 9 i8-inch tubes. H.P. 29,000 = 33 kts. Oil fuel only: 390 tons. 1 At present sea-going training ship. 2 Only 8 of these are reported in commission; the others are in reserve.

838 'UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 3 torpedo-boats: I. Marti (I905) Displacement: 245-350 tons. Guns: 2 ii-pdr; 2 2. Schmidt (I901) Is-inch tubes. (Marti : 2 I8-in.). 3. Badina (1901) 4 submarines: i. AG 23 Nezamuzhnyaya Displacement: 375-467 tons. H.P. 480 = 13 kts. 4 i8- (I916-20) inch tubes. 2. AG 24 Kommunist (1916-22) 3. AG 25 Kamenev (1916-22) 4. Politruk (ex-nerpa) Displacement: 650-784 tons. H.P. 560 Io kts. Fuel: (I9II-I5) 21 tons. Tubes, 4. Miscellaneous : 14 different units (gunboats, sloops, etc., including 4 destroyers and other units of Caspian, Volga and Amour Flotilla.) SUMMARY TABLE OF NAVAL UNITS Number Total Depreciated tonnage tonnage 5 Battleships and battle-cruisers.... 4 93,480 30,382 Cruisers and light cruisers... 43370 2,024 Torpedo-boats and destroyers...... 23 21,635 2,193 Submarines.. I2 i 7,13 1,207 Miscellaneous Craft...... 4 10,323 412 Total... 175,92I 46,218 Depreciated tonnage (on January ist, I928), is calculated as follows: (i) For battleships, battle-cruisers, coast-defence ships, monitors, aircraft-carriers and miscellaneous vessels, a reduction in original tonnage at the rate of i/20 per annum from date of completion. (2) For cruisers and light cruisers, a reduction of 1/17 per annum from date of completion. (3) For torpedo craft and submarines, a reduction of 1/I2 per annum from date of completion. 2 Baltic Fleet (i3), Black Sea Fleet (6) and Caspian, Volga and Amour Flotilla (4). 3 Gunboats, sloops, etc.

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 839 NAVY ~~~~~446!~ zof 1~~9~~13 HtttOF - DISTRIBUTION (IN 0) OF TONNAGE THE NAVY AMONG THE DIFFERENT CLASSES VESSELS in 'I913, I9I9 and I927 NOTE. - Only units completely finished on the dates in question have been included. NUMBER AND TONNAGE (in thousands of tons) I9I3 I919 1927 191.... H 0! H oh~ [ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~o Battleships.. I2 15I,5 15 248,2 4 93,5,_.Cruisers.... III,5 71 70,1 5 43,4 Destroyers and torpedo-boats 1. 25 41,5 17 7I,I123 2i,6 Submarines.. 26 8,5 33.5,012 7,1 Miscellaneous' 2 23 22,5 34 23,7 I4 1O,3 ' Not including 5 old non-effective cruisers (32,000oo tons). Gunboats, sloops and despatch vessels. 53.2 1927 Battleships Cruisers Destroyers and Submarines Miscellaneous torpedo-boats

840 UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS NAVY NUMBER OF UNITS AND TONNAGE in 1913, i919 -and I927 g t10 100o t 00 50 50 :-.. '913 1919 1927 -I - - 0.000 4) 0 1500 50.000 50000 200.000 200.000 250.000 250.000 Battleships Cruisers Destroyers and Submarines Miscellaneous torpedo-boats

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 841 NAVY TOTAL TONNAGE 5 00.000 400 000 Tons zoo200.000 100.000 1... 1'- 9269 1327.6 I927... I75.9 0 1913 1919 [926 19'27 III. Budget Expenditure on National Defence. A. NOTES ON BUDGET PROCEDURE. i. The financial year covers the period from October ist to September 3oth. The single budget for the Soviet Socialist Union is composed of: (a) the general budget of the Union, and (b) the local budgets of the Republics constituting the Soviet Socialist Union, namely, the Russian Federation, the Ukraine, White Russia, Transcaucasia, the Turcoman Republic and the Republic of Usbek. The single budget for the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics for the year 1924-25 was framed in accordance with the law of October 29th, 1924, and for the first time included the whole of the territory of the Union. That law regulated the budget rights of the Union and of the Republics composing the Union. Like former budgets, that for 1924-25 was a "tentative " budget. This system dates from the days of currency depreciation, the figures entered in the budget being subject to readjustment according to the results of the monthly closed accounts. In this way the budget estimates can be modified even during the current financial year according to the results obtained for the part of the year which is already past. Although stabilisation of the currency now makes it possible to replace this provisional system by a stable one, the budget for 1924-25 was still of a tentative nature.

842 UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS The budget for 1925-26, prepared in October 1925, was modified once, in April 1926. After that modification was effected, the figures were accepted as final, and the system may be said to have arrived at stability for the first time. The framing of a single budget for the whole Union has led to a distinction being made between Union receipts and the receipts of the Republics, a distinction which was provided for in the law of October 29th, 1924. Furthermore, the receipts in the single budget for the Union are divided into ordinary and extraordinary receipts. The latter include the yield from the sale of State property, the proceeds of loans and the issue of small currency. Expenditure is also divided into ordinary and extraordinary. Extraordinary expenditure includes grants to industry and agriculture, the costs of electrification, loans to the communes, and the expenses of State aid to victims of misfortune and of relief in cases of disasters of an extraordinary nature such as the famine and flood at Leningrad. Beginning with that of 1926-27, the budget no longer makes a distinction between ordinary and extraordinary receipts and expenditure. The receipts are classified as : (a) Receipts from State taxation ; (b) Receipts from nationalised undertakings (gross receipts of railways and postal, telegraph and telephone services ; and net receipts from other nationalised undertakings) ; and (c) Receipts from credit operations. Expenditure is subdivided into: (a) Expenditure on State administration (b) Capital expenditure on nationalised undertakings; and (c) Expenditure for the creation of special funds. 2. Both the general budget of the Union and those of the Republics are gross budgets. The only net receipts shown are the net profits of nationalised undertakings. 3. Expenditure on national defence is entered in the general budget of the Soviet Union. Military undertakings, like other nationalised undertakings, are under the Supreme Economic Council of the Union, but are directly administered by a special department, which also includes two authorities of a military nature: the Mobilisation and Demobilisation Committee and the Committee for Military Supply Orders. B. BUDGET EXPENDITURE ON NATIONAL DEFENCE. I. Summary of Defence Expenditure. TABLE I. 1924-25 1 925-26 I926-27 1 1927-28 Closed accounts [ Estimates Roubles (ooo,ooo's omitted) Commissariat for Military and Naval Affairs... 403.7 556.1 634.5 742.4 Health Administration of the Army and Navy.... 8.- 13.4 17.4 21.2 Special forces... 24.8 34.6 40.6 49.7 Total.. 436.5 604.1 692.5 813.3 Defence expenditure index...... ioo 138 159 184 Index number of wholesale prices: 1914 = ioo... 180 186 175 17I1 I924-25 = Ioo... ioo 103 97 95 Index number of expenditure reduced to the 1924-25 price level.... Ioo 134 163 196 1 Average, October i927-august 1928.

UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS 843 NOTES. - The figures in the table above include State expenditure on the social insurance of officials. These sums are paid into a social insurance fund, which provides assistance in the event of temporary incapacity, disablement, unemployment and sickness. The budget does not yet make any provision for pensions. In addition to the expenditure mentioned above, there is shown in the budget for 1927-28 a sum of 5 million roubles on account of war disablement pensions. II. Analysis of Defence Expenditure. The following table gives details of the closed accounts for i924-25 and I925-26 of the Commissariat for Military and Naval Affairs. Tfe budgets for I926-27 and 1927-28 only give the total figures for expenditure on national defence. TABLE 2. I924-25 1 I925-26 Closed accounts Roubles (ooo's omitted) COMMISSARIAT FOR MILITARY AND NAVAL AFFAIRS. I. Defence of the Union: i. Salaries of administrative authorities.... 26,88I 38,522 2. Pay......................... 70,903 10I,657 3. Travelling expenses.... 4,406 4,830 4. Social insurance.... 2,729 2,829 5. Office expenditure, etc...... 1,305 7,814 6. Special expenditure on the military court... 71 104 7. Recruiting and mobilisation........ 749 1,876 8. Expenditure for special purposes... (,959 30915 719 i,ooo 9. Expenses of postal, telegraph and telephone services.. 1,928 2,289 io. Transport... 20,065 19,044 ii. Material... 47,291 50,II5 12. Victualling.... 76,643 78,260 13. Services to the Communes.......,865 1,672 14. Fuel.6..., 76,14 \ 6,144 i5. Purchase of horses........ 3,413 5,209 16. Upkeep and repair of transport material..... 3,663 3,983 17. Artillery equipment, etc....... 82,332 i8. Chemical products....... 3,132 4 322 315 19. Technical material... 3,826 9,095 \ 13,826 9,095 20. Armaments... 11,650 25,662 21. Topographical service....... 30 677 22. Fortifications and other works... 13,263 20,134 23. Navigation and hydrographical works... 14,403 29,037 24. Training...................... 8,750 12,633 25. Subsidies to military establishments... 66,723 30,147 Total I... 403,733 550,609 II. Special Forces... 24,768 34,638 Total for the Commissariat for Military and Naval Affairs... 428,501I 585,247 III. Health administration of the Army and Navy... 8,048 13,367 IV. Mounted Police.......... 5,515 GRAND TOTAL... 436,549 604,I29 III. Receipts collected by Defence Departments. It is not possible to state separately the receipts collected by the Commissariat for Military and Naval Affairs in the course of its administration.