By: Philip Edwards 1

By: Philip Edwards 1

Basic Facts U.S. vs. U.K. 1812 to 1815 Coincided with war in Spain against Napoleon Took place in Great Lakes Region, Ontario, Quebec, Lake Champlain, Nova Scotia, and Bermuda Napoleon single click speaker to hear audio clip >>>>> Kidnappings, robberies, and a slew of other problems were enough to send the United States over the edge in 1812. The young and aggressive U.S. was tired of dealing with England and its tactics, so it declared war. The War of 1812 was actually fought from 1812 to 1815 and pitted the U.S. against the more experienced and established England, along with its Native American allies. Fortunately for the U.S., most of England s best soldiers and almost all of its powerful navy could not fight in the War of 1812 because England was already at war with Napoleon Bonaparte in Spain. The War of 1812 was fought in the Great Lakes Region, Ontario, Quebec, Lake Champlain, Nova Scotia, and Bermuda. Listen to this audio clip to learn more. 2

Causes of War Impressments Forcing sailors to work Used to fill depleted ranks The British kidnapped, or impressed, more than 6,000 U.S. sailors and forced them to work on British warships. Impressment is a politically correct way to say acceptable kidnappings for forced labor. It s like a military naval draft and a demanding big brother combined. The British needed impressments because most of their men were fighting in the war against Napoleon. Low pay, poor living conditions, and threats of flogging also led to the shortage of British sailors. Impressments were a legal way for press gangs to kidnap any British seafarer and add him to their crew. Even non-british subjects could be impressed if they were born in England or one of her colonies. The law was stretched to include sailors from ships breaking British trade embargoes. The British started impressments in 1664. 3

Causes of War, cont. Disruption of free trade Britain embargoed all trade to France British seized many U.S. cargos Thought illegal because U.S. was neutral The British stopped American ships from trading with France. They seized American ships on their way to France and stole the merchandise onboard. The U.S. believed that since it was then a neutral country, the British navy had no right to seize ships and rob them. The trade embargo was another problem that led to the War of 1812. 4

Causes of War, cont. Native American land Lands under pressure from settlers Starving tribes sold land cheap Tecumseh united tribes against U.S. Native Americans could not escape involvement in the War of 1812 because many of the battles took place in their own backyards, or in what used to be their own backyards. Another cause of the war was that U.S. settlers kept pushing the Native American tribes westward. Some Eastern tribes the Pequot, Narragansett, Mahicans, and the Pokanoket had severely diminished and moved elsewhere. Tribes that fell on hard times often sold huge tracts of land to settlers for next to nothing. Much to the settlers disdain, the British stepped in to help the Native Americans defend their land. Tecumseh, a very respected Native American leader, united tribes to fight the settlers invasion and sided with the British during the war. The Cherokees, Oneidas, and other Native Americans fought on the American side. 5

Prelude to War The Battle of Tippecanoe Governor Harrison vs. Tecumseh s confederation Motive for Native Americans to join British Prophetstown destroyed Victory for U.S. The Battle of Tippecanoe on November 7, 1811 was the main reason many Native Americans sided with the British. Tecumseh s followers were stationed at Prophetstown, near the Tippecanoe River in the Indiana Territory. Indiana Territory Governor William Henry Harrison was sent to Prophetstown to make peace, but he had a strong contingent of militias who were looking for a fight. Nobody knows exactly how the hostilities started, but Harrison fared worse in the casualty department, losing about 200 men. After the battle, U.S. forces burned Prophetstown to the ground. As the village burned, so did Tecumseh s dream of uniting tribes against the White settler invasion. The Battle of Tippecanoe was a victory for the U.S. 6

The War Hawks Mainly Republicans Led by Henry Clay Wished to punish British First use of popular term British support for the Native Americans was just another thorn in America s side. A group of Republicans called the War Hawks decided it was time to step up and make the British pay for their intimidating actions. The War Hawks were mostly made up of representatives from Southern and Western states and led by U.S. Speaker of the House Henry Clay of Kentucky. Their goal was to punish Britain for her actions and remove British influence from North America once and for all, in order to eliminate any future threat to the U.S. Ironically, Clay was also known as The Great Compromiser for his ability to bring others to agreement. Note: This was the first use of the term War Hawks, and it was given to the men by prominent Virginia Congressman John Randolph of Roanoke, a staunch opponent of the war. 7

U.S. Declares War Known as Mr. Madison s War or The Second American Revolution June 18, 1812 First Congressional declaration of war New England states opposed war Madison The War of 1812 was also known as Mr. Madison s War or The Second American Revolution. President James Madison signed the Declaration of War against Britain on June 18, 1812. This was the first of five times Congress has actually declared war. Not everyone agreed with the war the New England states refused to provide soldiers or financial support and continued to deal with the British throughout the war. Critical thinking question: What do you think would happen today if a state refused to participate in a war? 8

The Combatants Regulars Professional soldiers led by career officers Militias The bulk of U.S. forces Irregulars Did the dirty work Three types of soldiers fought in the War of 1812: regulars, militiamen, and irregulars. Regular troops were professional soldiers led by career officers. The British had the best army in the world, with up to 48,000 regulars. The U.S. had more than 38,000 regulars, and many had fought in the French and Indian War, the Revolutionary War, and against Native American tribes. Each side also had specialized troops like cavalry and batteries of horse-drawn field cannon. Well-trained regiments required 18 months of drilling. The U.S. had almost half a million militiamen, but most never even left their homes. Militiamen were part-time soldiers trained and commanded by individual states. Militias were used mostly as a local reserve force and rarely decided the fate of a battle. Irregulars (U.S. frontiersmen and Native Americans) attacked supply columns, shot officers and collaborators, did reconnaissance missions and generally tried to stir up as much trouble as possible behind enemy lines. They did the dirty work and were responsible for massacres. They also provided important information to commanders, such as where, how many, and in what direction enemies were moving. In larger battles, irregulars kept to the edges, where they could pick off enemy officers and protect the army s sides from enemy attacks. 9

Restrictions on War Weather and sickness Unwillingness of many to fight U.S. had almost no navy Militias refused to fight beyond state borders Bad weather, roads in poor condition, and lack of navigable river ways made war especially challenging. Regulars had to obey orders on the pain of death they fought fierce warriors; attacked forts; and endured cold, sickness, and even frostbite. Disease and malnutrition thinned armies more surely than battles did. While Britain had the most powerful navy in the world, the U.S. had almost no navy. Desertions were common, especially among militias, which generally refused to fight beyond their borders. 10

Strategy British Defend territories and control seas Blockade of major U.S. ports United States Invade Canada and remove British Recognition of U.S. right to free trade Strategy determines two things: (1) the overall goals of the campaign, and (2) where the crucial battles will be fought. Both the U.S. and the British had a strategy for winning the war. The British and their Native American allies elected to defend their frontiers and keep control over the seas. The British, with its most powerful navy in the world, used a closed blockade, which stopped ships from leaving or entering the U.S. all along the Eastern Seaboard. The Americans had an entirely different strategy. They decided to invade Canada and remove the British from there. This, they hoped, would give the U.S. free access to world markets without British interference. 11

Hull s Invasion of Canada July 12, 1812 U.S. thought Canada could be easily overrun Brigadier General William Hull invaded Canada Capture of Hull s letters informed British British prevailed Hull Former U.S. President Thomas Jefferson dismissively referred to the conquest of Canada as a matter of marching. The basic feeling in the U.S. was that Canada simply waited to be freed from British rule. The newly-formed U.S. talked tough, but it had little capacity to wage war. Brigadier General William Hull invaded Canada on July 12, 1812 from Detroit with an army mainly composed of militiamen. Things did not go according to plan. The British captured a small ship, the Cuyahoga Packet, which held all of Hull s correspondence, allowing them full access to his invasion plans. British regulars and highly motivated Canadian militia fighting on their own turf easily turned back the invasion, with the help of Tecumseh s Native Americans. Hull retreated to Detroit after the British victory. 12

July 17, 1812 Sneak attack U.S. garrison under Lt. Porter Hanks surrendered Avoided massacre by Native Americans Hanks and his men were paroled Victory provided more allied tribes for British Fort Mackinac It was Britain s turn to attack. In a masterful operation, Captain Charles Roberts attacked U.S. Fort Mackinac with a combined British and Native American force of 70 war canoes and ten bateaux. (A bateau is a long, narrow, wooden, canoe-like pole barge.) His large mixed force snuck up and surrounded the fort, positioning their cannon to commence firing. The U.S. garrison of 60 men under Lieutenant Porter Hanks, who wasn t even aware the war had started, surrendered, wishing to avoid a massacre by Native American irregulars. Hanks and his men were paroled, and the island inhabitants took an oath to the British empire. This British victory convinced even more Native American tribes to join the British cause. Although the U.S. later tried to retake Fort Mackinac, the British held it for the rest of the war, and it was only returned by treaty. 13

The Fall of Fort Detroit August 15, 1812 Artillery barrage did little damage Tecumseh s arrival provoked fear Hull surrendered More Native Americans joined British The British knew Brigadier General Hull was at Fort Detroit, so they continued their conquests there. The British started an artillery barrage, but it didn t do much damage. Tecumseh arrived with 500 warriors, causing Hull to surrender to General Isaac Brock. Hull s officers did not want to surrender, but Hull was afraid of Native Americans and wanted to avoid casualties. Still, the U.S. lost 2,200 men, Fort Detroit, military equipment, plus control of the Michigan Territory. More Native Americans joined the British side. 14

Fort Dearborn Massacre August 15, 1812 Captain Nathan Heald led group to Fort Wayne Chief Blackbird, with 500 Potawatomi and Winnebago, ambushed Heald Miami tribesmen and half the soldiers were killed Killings of regulars, militiamen, and even children made the American public cry for revenge after the Fort Dearborn Massacre. Captain Nathan Heald, Commander of Fort Dearborn, was leading his soldiers, militiamen, women, and children to safety at Fort Wayne when they were ambushed. Chief Blackbird, with 500 Potawatomi and Winnebago, scared off the Miami warriors accompanying Heald s group, wiped out the local militia, and killed half the U.S. soldiers. One bloodthirsty young warrior beheaded twelve children, who were hiding in a covered wagon. Even more Native Americans joined Tecumseh after the British victory. 15

Native American Fighters Most feared warriors Fought with muskets and traditional arms Silent in forests and excelled in ambush Blood-curdling yells often won battles General Hull wasn t the only one afraid of the Native Americans they were the most feared warriors of their time. They fought with a mix of modern weapons like the musket and traditional weapons like the tomahawk. Their ability to move almost unnoticed in the forest and to carry out ambushes was unparalleled. They were extremely brave even in pitched battle, and their blood-curdling yells often won battles without a shot being fired. 16

Constitution vs. Guerriere August 19, 1812 British frigate opened fire upon Constitution After hard battle, Guerriere was a dismasted hulk Old Ironsides Not all of the battles took place on land or ended with a British victory. Off the coast of Nova Scotia, the British frigate HMS Guerriere opened fire on the American ship the USS Constitution. Captain Hull of the Constitution held his ship s fire until the two warships were a mere 25 yards apart. After three collisions and much firing, the Guerriere was a sinking, dismasted hulk. British fire seemed to bounce harmlessly off the Constitution, giving her the nickname Old Ironsides. American sailors had surprisingly beaten British sailors. The Constitution has been re-commissioned and is one of only two active duty ships ever to sink an enemy. She can be seen afloat at her berth in Boston. 17

Battle of Queenston Heights October 13, 1812 British General Isaac Brock killed U.S. Colonel Winfield Scott captured by British Captain Robert Runchey s Colored Company helped defeat U.S. The British lost their best commander, General Isaac Brock, in the Battle of Queenston Heights, in Ontario. He was shot by American sharpshooters. Outnumbered 6,000 to 1,500, the Brits still won because they were better trained and led. They beat New York militia forces led by Major General Stephen Van Rensselaer, denying the U.S. a crossing along the Niagara River. Colonel Winfield Scott got his start in this battle, but he was captured along with more than 900 others. Captain Robert Runchey s Colored Company played a significant role in driving the Americans off Queenston Heights. 18

Battle of the Mississinewa December 17 to 18, 1812 U.S. force of 600 attacked Miami village Surprise attack captured 76 prisoners Miami counterattacked and succeeded in protecting village Canada and Michigan were not the only battle sites the Battle of the Mississinewa occurred in the Indiana Territory. William Henry Harrison ordered attacks against Miami Indian villages in response to their attacks on Fort Wayne and Fort Harrison. Lieutenant Colonel John Campbell s force of 600 mounted troops left Fort Greenville on December 14 and traveled 80 miles to reach the Miami village on December 17. Campbell s surprise attack succeeded at first and he captured 76 prisoners, but the Miamis counterattacked the next day and drove him off. 300 of Campbell s troops suffered frostbite before returning to Fort Greenville. 19

December 29, 1812 Constitution vs. Java Constitution s heavier guns, resistant construction withstood Java Java was burned The last action of 1812 brought another victory for Old Ironsides. The USS Constitution, with 44 guns, battered the HMS Java, a 38-gun frigate, into submission after a hard, two-hour battle. Java, originally captured from the French, had recently been refitted and carried extra guns (49 total) at the time of the battle. Constitution s heavier guns and resistant construction of live oak allowed her to withstand Java s broadsides. After the battle, Java was too damaged to capture intact and was burned. 20

Campaign Summary, 1812 British repulsed U.S. land invasions British gained Native American allies from Hull s defeat Secretary of War William Eustis resigned U.S fared better on water than on land Eustis 1812 was not a great year of combat for the U.S. The British, despite pinpricks to its huge and powerful navy, repulsed U.S. invasions on land all along the Canadian frontier. The British also gained Native American allies from Hull s defeat along the Canadian frontier. The poor performance of the U.S. military forced William Eustis, the secretary of war, to resign. Shockingly, the U.S. had fared better on water than on land. This was quite a feat, since the British personified sea power in the 1800s, with the largest, most powerful navy in the world. The U.S. Navy was almost non-existent at this time with the exception of a few heavily built frigates like the Constitution. U.S. frigates could outrun more powerful ships and outfight similar-sized British frigates. 21

Battle of Frenchtown January 22, 1813 Also known as River Raisin Massacre Severe defeat for U.S. Winchester was captured by Chief Roundhead Only 33 of 1,000 U.S. soldiers escaped The Americans began 1813 by unsuccessfully trying to retake Detroit. General William Henry Harrison the new commander to replace the cowardly Hull divided his army into two supporting columns, but they got separated. General James Winchester disobeyed orders to stay close and led his column ahead to Frenchtown. A surprise British and Native American attack crumbled his defensive positions there, and Chief Roundhead captured Winchester on his way to the front lines. Only 33 of the 1,000 men in Winchester s column escaped capture or death. The Battle of Frenchtown in the Michigan Territory (also known as the River Raisin Massacre ) was a severe defeat for the Americans. 22

British Blockade March 30, 1813 All maritime traffic from Long Island to Mississippi blockaded Southern states suffered huge commercial losses Blockade in effect for duration of war New England exempted from blockade On March 30, 1813, British naval ships extended their blockade, stopping all maritime traffic from Long Island to Mississippi. The Southern states suffered huge commercial losses when they were unable to send products to overseas markets. This blockade remained in effect for the duration of the war. The New England states, since they did not participate in the war, were exempted from the blockade and continued to trade even with the British. Leakage from smaller ports allowed U.S. privateers (mostly small ships) to roam the ocean and capture British ships. 23

Battle of York April 27, 1813 U.S. defeated British and Canadian militia Arson by U.S. provides motive for burning of Washington Famous explorer Brigadier General Zebulon Pike was killed Land and water were a great combination for the Americans. General Henry Dearborn and Commodore Isaac Chauncey led an American force of 1,600 to 1,800 men, supported by a naval flotilla, to the area just west of the city of York (now Toronto) in Canada. British commander Major General Roger Hale Sheaffe had about 700 British and Canadian militiamen and regulars to defend the town and fort. Chauncey s small fleet bombarded the city and knocked out the defending batteries, allowing Dearborn s land forces to surround York. Believing the battle was lost and unable to concentrate his forces, Sheaffe retreated this failure cost him his job and position as lieutenant governor of Upper Canada. The American forces looted and committed arson, providing the motive for the later sacking and burning of Washington D.C. Flying stones and debris from a magazine explosion set by the retreating British mortally injured the famous American explorer Brigadier General Zebulon Pike. 24

Siege of Fort Meigs April 28 to May 9, 1813 U.S. successfully defended fort against Procter Fort bombarded while relief force arrived British cannons captured and recovered Tecumseh decimated Clay s relief force British withdrew May 9 Procter The British bombarded Fort Meigs (located in Northwestern Ohio) from April 28 to May 9, 1813. Major General William Henry Harrison, with 1,200 regulars and militiamen, successfully defended the fort against British Brigadier General Henry Procter along with Native Americans under Chief Tecumseh. General Green Clay brought 800 men to help Harrison. Clay s forces took British cannons, but a British counterattack recovered them, and Tecumseh s warriors attacked Clay s forces. Still, the bombardment did not work, and the British withdrew on May 9. U.S. losses were 388 casualties and about 500 prisoners; British and Native American losses came to fewer than 150. 25

Invasion on Sackets Harbor May 28 to 29, 1813 Harbor attacked to destroy new U.S. frigate General Pike Successful defense after British hesitated General Pike burned but later rebuilt Considered a U.S. victory New York City shipbuilder Henry Eckford was building a great ship called the General Pike. On May 28, 1813, the ship, named after Zebulon Pike, laid almost completed in Sackets Harbor. That s when the British tried to destroy it. British leaders Sir George Prevost and Sir James Yeo attacked the harbor while its U.S. defenders were busy attacking somewhere else. The British hesitated because they weren t familiar with the local waters, so U.S. General Jacob Brown was able to successfully defend the harbor. The General Pike was partially burned, but it was later rebuilt because its timbers were still green. The successful defense of the base counted as a victory for U.S. forces. 26

Battle of Lake Erie September 10, 1813 First entire British fleet ever to be captured Dramatic four-hour battle at Put-in-Bay British withdrew from bases on Lake Erie We have met the enemy and they are ours, U.S. Master Commandant Oliver Hazard Perry wrote. The Battle of Lake Erie, sometimes referred to as the Battle of Put-in-Bay, (located off the coast of Ohio), represented the first time in history that an entire British fleet was completely defeated and captured. Here s how it happened: Without control of Lake Erie, British supplies at Fort Amherstburg were running low. For British Army Commander Henry Procter and his naval commander Robert Barclay, the situation was desperate. The British squadron had no choice but to risk a battle for control of Lake Erie, even though they were outnumbered. Barclay sailed out of Amherstburg to meet Perry s squadron at Put-in-Bay. After almost four hours of intense cannon fire and many deaths, the British surrendered. Only 20 percent of the men on Perry s flagship escaped unscathed. Having lost control of Lake Erie, Procter abandoned Amherstburg and withdrew up the Thames Valley. 27

Battle of Moraviantown October 5, 1813 Also called the Battle of the Thames High point in U.S. campaign British lost control west of Lake Ontario Tecumseh slain Native Alliance collapsed with death of Tecumseh The great Native American Tecumseh was killed in hand-to-hand combat at the Battle of Moraviantown. This battle, also called the Battle of the Thames, was the high point in the U.S. campaign to conquer Canada. British Major General Henry Procter lost control west of Lake Ontario, and the Native Alliance collapsed with the death of Tecumseh. 28

Tecumseh s Quotations How can we have confidence in the white people? When Jesus Christ came upon the earth, you killed him, the son of your own God, you nailed him up! You thought he was dead, but you were mistaken. And only after you thought you killed him did you worship him, and start killing those who would not worship him. What kind of a people is this for us to trust? Tecumseh single click speakers to hear audio clips >>>>> When the legends die, the dreams end; there is no more greatness. Tecumseh Tecumseh was more than just a leader and astute warrior. Although normally associated with the Shawnee, he had many followers from other tribes because he believed that a tribal union was the best way to stop White advancement. His quotations are as valid today as they were 200 years ago and raise interesting questions. Listen to these two clips of Tecumseh s quotations. Then read the other two quotations printed on the slide. 29

Battle of Chrysler s Farm November 11, 1813 Part of 7,000-man U.S. army engaged British caused U.S. forces to retreat British credited with lopsided victory U.S. confidence was up, and Montreal was next. Major General James Wilkinson left Sackets Harbor with an army of more than 7,000 to sail down the St. Lawrence River and attack Montreal. To lighten the boats and clear the bank of enemies, Wilkinson portaged his army near Chrysler s farm. (Portage means to carry a boat over land to avoid an obstacle in the water.) At Chrysler s Farm he found two regiments of British regulars (800 men) and a few Canadian militias. U.S. attacks failed to dislodge the well-trained British regulars led by Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Wanton Morrison. Eventually, the American soldiers retreated, and Wilkinson s campaign to capture Montreal fell apart. 30

Campaign Summary, 1813 U.S. won control of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario Smaller British forces rebuffed U.S. invasions Tecumseh s death weakened First Nation alliance U.S. militias poorly trained, motivated and led Native Americans lost Ohio Valley to settlers 1813 was a banner year for the U.S. Navy, but ground forces had little to cheer about. With the exception of the Battle of York, British forces inflicted sharp defeats on the U.S. The death of Tecumseh weakened Native American aims, but they continued to fight on the British side. U.S. militias and their commanders learned the hard way that an invasion of Canada would be difficult, and many were losing their appetite for further battle. However, the Native Americans lost the Ohio Valley to settlers. 31

Second Battle of La Colle Mill March 30, 1814 4,000 U.S. stymied by 80 British inside blockhouse British fired first Congreve rockets Casualties: U.S., 160; British, 60 How could 80 soldiers fend off 4,000? Blockhouses were one way. These single-building forts were often multi-storied and made of heavy timbers that only a large cannon could damage. Small slits cut into the wall (called loopholes) permitted soldiers to fire at enemy troops in relative safety. Blockhouses were used to block roads, bridges and river crossings. At the Second Battle of La Colle Mill, 4,000 U.S. troops used cannon and mortars to attack, but British sharpshooters in a blockhouse drove the U.S. and Major General James Wilkinson away. The British fired the newly introduced Congreve rockets, which did little damage but provoked confusion and fear. British forces received relief from the Canadian Fencibles (troops designed to defend Canada from foreign hostilities) and the royal navy, giving them a total of 500, with which they drove back the attackers. U.S. casualties were 160, the British only had 60. La Colle Mill was the site of two battles. The first battle was only a small skirmish in 1812. 32

Congreve Rockets Inspired And the rockets red glare, the bombs bursting in air in The Star-Spangled Banner Resembled a large pop-bottle rocket Invented by Sir William Congreve in 1804 Hard to aim, difficult to control, short range Do you know where the line And the rockets red glare, the bombs bursting in air in The Star-Spangled Banner comes from? The line is a reference to Congreve rockets the British used. Sir William Congreve created the rockets after hearing how effective rockets had been against British troops in India. A Congreve rocket looked like a large pop-bottle rocket. It was a steel tube with a conical cap mounted on a long pole used to guide it in flight. Fired from a simple A-frame device, it was designed to fly a short distance and explode amidst the enemy like a large firework. Unfortunately, it often exploded prematurely. It could, however, do considerable damage when it did manage to hit something. 33

Niagara Campaign of 1814 U.S. plan to divide Canada by capturing Kingston or Montreal failed U.S. desired British territory to bargain in peace negotiations British won war against Napoleon, freeing reserves for North American war U.S. fleet arrived on Lake Ontario to conduct new offensive After two years of war, the U.S. forces had little to show for their efforts. The original plan to divide Canada by occupying either Kingston or Montreal had failed miserably. Adding to U.S. woes were newly available British reserves coming from the European Theater, where Napoleon Bonaparte had recently been defeated. President Madison increased pressure to win some British territory in order to have a better bargaining position for the coming peace negotiations. Secretary of War John Armstrong directed Major General Jacob Brown and Isaac Chauncey s fleet on Lake Ontario to conduct a new offensive. This began the Niagara Campaign of 1814. 34

Battle of Chippewa July 5, 1814 U.S. regulars turned back larger British force Scott s troops mistaken for U.S. militia Scott An important U.S. victory took place at the Battle of Chippewa, where Brigadier General Winfield Scott turned back a larger force under British Major General Phineas Riall. Riall saw Scott s troops clad in grey the color of militia uniforms and thought he would easily defeat the poorly trained troops. Scott s troops were actually well-trained regulars who had spent the last 18 months honing their skills. The British lost 500 men and were forced to retreat. The U.S. forces suffered about 300 casualties. 35

Battle of Lundy s Lane July 25, 1814 Bloody, indecisive battle Scott badly wounded Both sides suffered about 900 casualties A very bloody and indecisive battle occurred a few days later and a few miles north of Chippewa. The Battle of Lundy s Lane proved that the Americans were a force to be reckoned with, but victory came at a price. This time Brigadier General Winfield Scott, with 1,000 regulars, came up against British Lieutenant General Gordon Drummond with 2,800 regulars. The British defended well against the U.S. attack, but they spent days trying to recapture lost artillery. Scott was badly wounded and both sides suffered about 900 casualties. 36

Battle of Lundy s Lane Map single click screen to view map This map illustrates the Battle of Lundy s Lane. 37

Siege of Fort Erie August 4 to September 21, 1814 U.S. successfully defended Fort Erie Magazine explosion kills 200 British Casualties: British, 1,000; U.S., around 600 Last important battle in Niagara Campaign American troops withdrew to Fort Erie. The British troops followed, intending to drive them out of Canada, but Brigadier General Edmund P. Gaines successfully defended Fort Erie against British General Gordon Drummond. A British attack almost took Fort Erie and captured several cannons, but a magazine explosion killed 200 British who managed to break in. U.S. counterattacks stopped the siege. The British suffered about 1,000 casualties; the U.S. suffered around 600, mostly resulting from the counterattack against the retreating British regulars. This was the last important battle in the Niagara Campaign. 38

The Washington Campaign August to September 1814 Series of British raids in Chesapeake Bay used to create diversion Washington virtually unprotected The British turned to their navy. They used a series of raids in the Chesapeake Bay region to create a diversion from the Niagara and Great Lakes campaigns. The British controlled the seas and moved at will along the whole of the Eastern Seaboard. Washington was virtually unprotected, and Baltimore was an important military target since it was an active port. 39

Battle of Bladensburg August 24, 1814 Prelude to burning of Washington D.C. British easily defeated inept U.S. militia Way cleared to enter Washington D.C. At the Battle of Bladensburg, U.S. General William H. Winder and almost 7,000 poorly trained militiamen failed to stop General Robert Ross and 4,500 regulars on the way to Washington D.C. When the British troops reached the capital, 400 U.S. sailors and Marines with cutlasses and pikes put up a brave defense, but government officials were forced to flee the city. 40

August 24, 1814 British burned public buildings but spared residential buildings Capitol Building set ablaze Americans burned Navy Yard and frigate Columbia The Burning of Washington First Lady Dolly Madison saved Washington s portrait British occupied Washington for 26 hours Washington D.C. was ablaze. Forces under Admiral George Cockburn and General Robert Ross burned the Senate, House of Representatives and Library of Congress, which were all housed in the Capitol Building at the time. The Americans burned the Navy Yard and the unfinished 44-gun frigate, Columbia, to prevent the British from using them. First Lady Dolly Madison managed to save George Washington s portrait from the White House. Residential buildings were spared. Cockburn ordered that all the newspaper printers be destroyed and specifically all the letters C burnt so that the press would stop printing nasty articles about him. Cockburn was going to burn the offices of the newspaper for the National Intelligence, but local women pleaded with him not to for fear that the fire would spread to their homes. He spared that building but still destroyed the letter C on the presses. The British occupied Washington for only 26 hours. 41

Battle of Plattsburgh September 6 to September 11, 1814 Decisive U.S. victory defending Plattsburgh Bay Attack turned back by Vermont militia Naval defeat forced British to retreat Captain Thomas Macdonough and General Alexander Macomb successfully defended Plattsburgh Bay in a crucial win for American forces. Macdonough s anchored fleet forced British Captain Downie s squadron to surrender after a bloody two-hour cannonade. Downie was killed. The Vermont militia ambushed British General Prevost and his troops, who were trying to attack the city of Plattsburgh. With the navy defeated in the bay, Prevost called off the attack and returned to base. This battle was important because it ended the British campaign in the Northern area and brought Vermont into the war. 42

British Attack on Baltimore September 12, 1814 British lost commander to sniper Bombardment by cannon and rockets failed Inspired Francis Scott Key s poem The Star-Spangled Banner British defeated in crucial battle Still fired up from their attack on Washington D.C., the British sought Baltimore as their next victim. British Admiral Alexander Cochrane tried to reduce part of Baltimore s defenses at Fort McHenry. The British lost General Robert Ross to a sniper during a small skirmish near the fort. Bombardment by cannon and rockets failed to subdue Fort McHenry and inspired Francis Scott Key s poem The Star-Spangled Banner. Had the British been able to bring in their large and powerful navy, the outcome of their attack on Baltimore might have been different. Fortunately for the U.S., the water was too shallow to permit larger ships from closing on the fort. This was one of the turning points in the war. 43

The Star-Spangled Banner by Francis Scott Key O say, can you see, by the dawn s early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight s last gleaming, Whose broad stripes and bright stars, through the perilous fight O er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming? And the rockets red glare, the bombs bursting in air Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there; O say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave O er the land of the free and the home of the brave single click speaker to hear audio clip >>>>> Did you know that a 35-year-old lawyer wrote the U.S. national anthem? The lyrics of The Star-Spangled Banner were written in 1814 by Francis Scott Key, who was also an amateur poet. He wrote the lyrics as a poem after seeing the British navy s bombardment of Fort McHenry in Baltimore, Maryland. Listen to this clip of LeAnn Rimes singing the national anthem. 44

Anti-war Movement Based in New England states Anti-war movement may have saved U.S. Some states considered secession Just like in today s world, not every American in the 1800s thought that America should have been involved in the war. The War of 1812 can be considered the birth of serious anti-war movements in the U.S. New England, with the brief exception of Vermont's participation against the British on Lake Champlain in 1814, did not play any part in the war and even considered secession as a form of protest. Ironically, the anti-war movement helped force the Treaty of Ghent and may have saved the U.S. from eventual defeat by the British, who were much stronger militarily. In fact, the British people hardly noticed the war since Napoleon Bonaparte represented a much more pressing threat. The outcome might have been different had the British directed all their might against the U.S. 45

The Treaty of Ghent Signed December 24, 1814 in Ghent, Belgium Ended War of 1812 Neither side gained advantage Confirmed U.S. independence The War of 1812 ended in a stalemate and was finalized with the Treaty of Ghent in 1814. Treaty terms specified status quo ante bellum meaning the same as before the war, so neither side gained any real territorial advantage. The treaty restored pre-war boundaries and released all prisoners. Weak guarantees regarding Native American treatment were ignored, and British proposals to create a Native American buffer zone in Ohio and Michigan collapsed after the Indian coalition fell apart. 46

Campaign Summary, 1814 Defeats for invading forces on all fronts Failure to capture Baltimore not compensated by burning of Washington Battle of New Orleans due to poor communication Neither side gained advantage In today s world of lightning-fast news and the Internet, it is difficult to imagine that a peace treaty could be signed in France but not heard about in the U.S. for weeks. In 1814, the British continued their campaign in the South around New Orleans because they didn t know the war was over. At the end of 1814, the score was pretty much the same. Invading forces U.S. and British alike suffered serious defeats on all fronts. Although a blow to the young nation s pride, the burning and sacking of Washington D.C. did not alter the strategic balance of power. Neither side was able to make territorial gains that could influence the Treaty of Ghent. 47

Battle of New Orleans January 8, 1815 British decisively defeated U.S. gunboats eliminated Last battle of the war Jackson became a hero, Pakenham killed Unaware that peace had been declared in 1814, Major General Andrew Jackson decisively defeated a large British army intent on seizing New Orleans the gateway to the Mississippi. Future U.S. president Jackson became a hero in this last battle of the war. British naval units under command of Admiral Cochrane eliminated U.S. gunboats guarding the Lake Borgne entrance to New Orleans. This allowed the British to land more than 10,000 seasoned regulars with cannon. British General Edward Pakenham hesitated to attack, allowing Jackson to form the Line Jackson 4,000 U.S. troops well-dug in and protected by a dozen cannon. Even with support form the British navy, Pakenham could not take the U.S. position and died in the attempt. Although this U.S. win at New Orleans did not change treaty terms, it helped reinforce U.S. rights. Critical thinking question: If Jackson had had a cell phone, do you think he would have become president? 48

Battle of New Orleans Map single click screen to view map This map illustrates the Battle of New Orleans. 49

The Aftermath of the War Greatest losers Native American tribes around Great Lakes Both sides accepted status quo ante bellum Impressments and blockades by British stopped by the end of the war The war was over. The Native American tribes south and west of the Great Lakes lost their British allies, which ended the dream of a new Native American nation. Both sides accepted status quo ante bellum the way things were before the war. Impressments and blockades by the British, both principal reasons for starting the conflict, ended before the war did. 50

Conclusion Forgotten War because it changed little Disaster for War Hawks careers Reaffirmed U.S. sovereign status Beginning of U.S. anti-war movement Showed difficulty of conquering other nations Clay single click speaker to hear audio clip >>>>> Because it came at a great cost of lives but accomplished little, The War of 1812 is often known as the Forgotten War. However, it did reaffirm that the U.S. was a sovereign nation that would protect its people and commercial interests. The U.S. anti-war movement got its start in this war and continues to this day to be a political force. The war also showed just how hard it is for one country to conquer another country. Listen to this clip for more about the significance of the War of 1812. 51

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