SUB Hamburg Ways of War American Military History from the Colonial Era to the Twenty-First Century Matthew S. Muehlbauer and David J. Ulbrich R Routledge Taylor &. Francis Group NEW YORK AND LONDON
Contents List of Figures List of Maps Acknowledgements xiv xvii xx Introduction 1 What is War? 1 Combat Actions 2 Types of War 2 Military Service 4 Levels of Warfare 4 War and Society 5 Ways of War 6 Short Bibliography 6 1 Early Colonization and Conflict, 1607-1689 8 Native American Societies and Warfare 9 Western Europe and the Military Revolution 11 Technological Developments in Early Modern Europe 12 Tactics, Operations, and Logistics in the Military Revolution 14 The Military Revolution in America 16 Overview: Early Modern England, Its Wars, and Military Service 17 Early Virginia and the First Anglo-Powhatan War, 1609-14 19 The Second and Third Anglo-Powhatan Wars, 1622-32 and 1644-46 21
Bacon's Rebellion, 1676 23 Early New England 25 The Pequot War, 1636-38 27 A Tense Period of Peace 30 King Philip's War, 1675-76 31 King Philip's War: Assessment 35 Conclusion 36 Short Bibliography 36 2 Wars Imperial and Regional, 1689-1763 38 The Glorious Revolution of 1688-89 39 Overview of Imperial Wars in North America 40 King William's War, 1689-97: The Campaigns of 1690 42 King William's War: Later Campaigns 44 Queen Anne's War, 1702-13: New England and Frontier Warfare 45 Queen Anne's War: Campaigns against New France, 1709-11 48 Queen Anne's War: The American Southeast, 1702-11 49 The Tuscarora and Yamasee Wars, 1711-13 and 1715-17 50 A Quarter Century of "Peace" 51 The War of Jenkins' Ear, 1739^8 52 Louisbourg, 1745 54 The Remainder of King George's War, 1744-48 55 The French and Indian War, 1754-63: Introduction and the Global Context 56 War Begins in America 57 The Battle of the Monongahela and Early British Campaigns, 1755 58 Tensions Civilian-Military, Imperial-Colonial, 1756-57 60 French Campaigns and Cultural Strains, 1755-57 62 The Tide Turns: British Campaigns in North America, 1758-59 65 The Plains of Abraham and Last British Campaigns in America, 1759-60 66 The War Beyond North America and the Peace of Paris 68 Conclusion 69 Short Bibliography 69 3 The American Revolution, 1763-1783 70 War Erupts: Lexington and Concord, 1775 71 British vs. Americans: A Comparison 72 v i
Breed's Hill, 1775 ' 74 George Washington and the Continental Army 76 The Strategic Situation in 1776 77 The New York-New Jersey Campaign, 1776 78 Trenton and Princeton, 1776-77 81 Who Fought? 84 More British Strategic Breakdown 87 Howe's Pennsylvania Campaign, 1777 88 The Saratoga Campaign, 1777 89 Native Americans in the War 92 France's Entry into the War 95 Valley Forge and the Northern Field Armies to 1781 95 The Naval War 97 The British Southern Campaigns 98 Carolina in Flames 100 Nathanael Greene Goes South 101 Yorktown: The Final Campaign, 1781 103 Conclusion 106 Short Bibliography 107 4 Challenges in the Early Republic, 1783-1815 108 Challenges at the End of the Revolutionary War 109 The Nationalists 111 The U.S. Constitution and Its Military Provisions 113 War in the Northwest Territory, 1790-95 114 The Legion of the United States 116 The Whiskey Rebellion, 1794 118 The Early Impact of the French Revolution 119 The Quasi-War with France, 1798-1800 120 The New Army and Federalists' Fall from Power 122 Jefferson and the Army 123 The Tripolitan War, 1801-05 124 The War of 1812, 1812-15: Prelude 125 The War of 1812: U.S. Plans and Problems 127 The War of 1812: The Northern Campaigns 129 Naval Conflict in the War of 1812 132 vi i
The Chesapeake in the War of 1812 134 The First Creek War, 1813-14 135 New Orleans, 1814-15 138 Conclusion 140 Short Bibliography 140 5 Expansion, 1815-1861 142 Army Reforms after the War of 1812 142 Military Education 144 Life in the Antebellum Army 145 Andrew Jackson and Indian Removal 149 Black Hawk's War, 1832 150 The Second Seminole War, 1835-42 153 Evolving Military Attitudes 155 The Second Creek War, 1836-37 155 Forced Removal Short of War: The Trail of Tears, 1838-39 156 Overview of the Antebellum U.S. Navy 157 Manifest Destiny, Texas and Mexico 158 The Mexican War, 1846-48: First Battles 159 The Mexican War: Initial U.S. Plans and Operations 160 The Mexican War: The Far West 162 Monterrey, 1846 164 U.S. Strategic Reassessment and a Mexican Offensive 164 The Vera Cruz Campaign, 1847 166 The Capture of Mexico City 167 Occupation and Negotiation 169 Conclusion 170 Short Bibliography 171 6 The American Civil War: Confederate Defiance, 1861-1863 172 Changing Weapons Technology 173 Tactics 176 Officers and Expertise 177 Union vs. Confederacy: Resource Comparison 178 Union vs. Confederacy: Military Capabilities 179 Union vs. Confederacy: Political Leadership 180
Strategy 182 First Bull Run, 1861 184 Raising Armies 188 The Western Theater in Early 1862 191 The Peninsula Campaign, 1862 194 Jackson in the Valley, Lee and the Seven Days 196 Second Bull Run, 1862 199 Antietam, 1862 200 Confederate Western Campaigns of Late 1862 202 Emancipation 203 Diplomacy 206 Union Operations to 1863 207 Conclusion 208 7 The American Civil War: Union Triumph, 1863-1865 210 The Naval War 211 The Soldiers' Experience: Camp Life 213 Combat and Its Consequences 214 Chancellorsville, 1863 216 Gettysburg, 1863 218 Vicksburg, 1862-63 223 Chickamauga and Chattanooga, 1863 226 A New Union Strategy 229 The Overland Campaign, 1864 231 Additional 1864 Operations in the Eastern Theater 234 The Atlanta Campaign, 1864 236 The March to the Sea, 1864 240 Women and the War 244 The Final Campaigns, 1865 246 Conclusion 248 Short Bibliography 248 8 Transitions: Force in Domestic, Frontier, and Imperial Contexts, 1865-1902 250 Army Duties during Reconstruction 251 The Politicization of Violence 254 Southern Insurgencies and Redemption 255
The West 259 The Army on the Frontier 261 The Last Indian Wars: The Pacific Northwest 264 The Last Indian Wars: The Southwest 265 The Last Indian Wars: The Plains to 1875 266 The Great Sioux War and the Battle of the Little Bighorn, 1876-77 268 Evolving U.S. Military Institutions 271 The Spanish-American War, 1898-99 273 Santiago de Cuba, 1898 275 The Philippine-American War, 1899-1902 278 Conclusion 281 Short Bibliography 281 9 Early Twentieth-Century Reforms and the Great War, 1902-1918 282 Elihu Root's Reforms and the Creation of a Modern Army 283 Expansion of the U.S. Navy and Transformation of the Marine Corps 285 Interventions in Latin America 287 The Great War in Europe, 1914-17 290 American "Neutrality" and the Decision for War, 1914-17 294 The Great War over Here: American Mobilization 296 The Great War over There: Combat in France, 1918 302 Cantigny: America's First Test in Combat 306 The Battles of Chateau-Thierry and Belleau Wood 307 The Second Battle of the Marne 308 The St. Mihiel Salient, the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, and the Armistice, September-November 1918 309 Conclusion 310 Short Bibliography 312 10 Transformations in the Interwar Years, 1918-1941 314 Allied Occupation of Germany and the Treaty of Versailles, 1918-20 315 The American Military in the Postwar Era of Normalcy 317 Groping for Strategies: Planning for Future Wars 321 Grasping for New Technologies: Proponents and Detractors 324 Economic Depression and Emerging Global Threats, 1929-39 328 Ongoing Development of Tanks and Strategic Bombers 331 x
Amphibious Doctrine, Landing Craft, and the U.S. Marine Corps 334 Wars in East Asia and Europe, 1937-40 337 The Last Six Months before the Attack on Pearl Harbor, 1941 343 Conclusion 345 Short Bibliography 345 11 Mobilizing for the Second World War, 1941-1943 346 The "Day of Infamy" 347 Japan's Tide of Victories until May 1942 350 Initial American Reactions in Washington and in the Pacific 352 Stopping Japan's Advance in the Southwest Pacific: Battle of the Coral Sea, May 1942 353 Stopping Japan's Advance in the Central Pacific: The Battle of Midway, June 1942 354 Going on the Offensive: America's Campaign for Guadalcanal, 1942-43 357 American Home Front: Building the "Arsenal of Democracy" 360 Women and Minorities in Uniform 361 Building the American War Machine and Controlling Wartime Beliefs 366 Winning the Battle of the Atlantic 369 Faltering Steps and Stumbling Victories in North Africa, 1942 370 Defeat at Kasserine Pass and Victory at El Guettar 372 The Anglo-American Invasion and Capture of Sicily, 1943 373 Invading Italy and the Slow Advance toward Rome, 1943-44 375 Bloody Battles of the Italian Campaign 376 Conclusion 378 12 Winning the Second World War, 1943-1945 380 American Offensives against Japan, 1943-44 381 Testing Amphibious Capabilities in the Central Pacific, 1943-44 382 The Southwest Pacific Campaign: From New Guinea to the Philippines, 1943^14 386 American Logistics: Key to Victory in the Second World War 389 Strategic Bombing: From Theory to Reality to Victory, 1942-45 390 D-Day: The Planning and Execution of Operation OVERLORD, June 6, 1944 392 Hell in the Hedgerows and Breakout of the Bocage 396 Broad Fronts, Spearheads, and a Bridge Too Far 397 Hell in the Htirtgen Forest and the Lorraine 400
From the Battle of the Bulge to V-E Day, December 1944 to May 1945 402 Ominous Signs in the Pacific in 1945: Kamikazes, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa 405 A Brave New Way of Warfare? The Atomic Bombs and V-J Day 410 Conclusion 411 Short Bibliography 412 13 American National Security in the Early Cold War, 1945-1960 414 Peace in the Postwar World? 415 The Start of the Cold War and the Advent of the Truman Doctrine 416 Social Changes in the U.S. Armed Forces, 1945-48 420 Postwar Demobilization, Military Unification, and Technological Transformation 421 The Korean War: Invasion and Reaction, June-August 1950 424 The Inchon Landing and the Drive to the Yalu, September-November 1950 428 The Surprise Chinese Offensive, November-December 1950 429 From War of Movement to War of Stalemate, January 1951-July 1953 432 The Election of Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Armistice in Korea 433 Eisenhower's "New Look" and Asymmetric Containment Strategy 434 Transformations in the U.S. Military in an Era of Reduced Budgets 436 Challenges to Eisenhower's Strategy of Containment, 1953-60 440 Eisenhower's Second Term: Setbacks and Losses, 1957-60 442 Conclusion 445 Short Bibliography 445 14 Confrontations in the Cold War, 1960-1973 446 John F. Kennedy's "Flexible Response" and Symmetric Containment 447 The Bay of Pigs Fiasco and Another Berlin Crisis, 1961 451 Kennedy versus Khrushchev in the Cuban Missile Crisis, October 1962 452 Growing Commitment in Vietnam: Advice, Training, and Support, 1961-63 454 South Vietnam's Failed Programs, Battlefield Defeats, and a Coup D'etat, 1963 456 New President but Same Strategy: Lyndon Baines Johnson in Vietnam, 1964-65 458 Escalation in Vietnam: Air War, Ground War, and the Draft, 1965 460 Testing "Air Mobility" and "Search and Destroy" at la Drang, November 1965 463 Looking for the "Light at the End of the Tunnel," 1966-67 467
1968: The Tet Offensive 470 Tet's Damaging Effects on American Public Opinion 473 A New President and a New Strategy: Nixon and "Vietnamization" 474 Winless Fighting and Endless Negotiations, 1970-73 475 Conclusion 479 Short Bibliography 479 15 From Cold War to Pax Americana to Uncertainty, 1973-2012 482 The Nixon-Ford Doctrine: Continued Detente and Deterrence 483 Recovering from Vietnam in 1973: From Conscription to the All-Volunteer Force 485 Looking toward the Next War: Doctrinal Reforms and Weapons Modernization 486 President Jimmy Carter and the Departure from Containment, 1977-80 488 Ronald Reagan and America's Resurgent Military Power, 1981-89 490 The Reagan Doctrine in Action 492 George H. W. Bush's Challenges: Ending One War and Fighting Another War, 1989-93 494 Pax Americana and Bill Clinton's New Interventionism, 1993-2001 498 A New President Faces the 9/11 Attacks and an Era of Uncertainty 502 Immediate American Retaliation: Operation ENDURING FREEDOM, 2001-03 503 The Bush Doctrine and Operation IRAQI FREEDOM in 2003 505 OIF: Nation-Building, the Insurgency, and the Surge, 2003-11 508 Barack Obama and Continuity and Change in the U.S. Military, 2009-12 513 Conclusion 517 Short Bibliography 517 Index 519