Africa & nuclear weapons An introduction to the issue of nuclear weapons in Africa
Status in Africa Became a nuclear weapon free zone (NWFZ) in July 2009, with the Treaty of Pelindaba Currently no African states with nuclear weapons South Africa developed nuclear weapons, but the programme was dismantled in the early 1990s (only known country to voluntarily end its nuclear programme after developing weapons) African states have not been significant actors in the international discourse addressing the elimination of nuclear weapons If African states engage on the issue, they may play a significant role (demonstrated in the negotiations of the Mine Ban Treaty and the Convention on Cluster Munitions)
The long way Developing an African nuclear-weapon-free zone (NWFZ) a lengthy process, tracing back to the early 1960s Nuclear tests conducted by France in the Sahara from 1960-66, resulting in radioactive fallout endangering both humans and the environment As a response, NWFZ proposed by 14 African states through UNGA Resolution 1652 (1961) The Treaty of Pelindaba opened for signature on 11 April 1996 in Cairo and entered into force 15 July 2009 All 53 members of the African Union (AU) are signatories to the treaty and 34 have ratified (including Morocco who is not an AU member)
The Pelindaba Treaty Ensure that nuclear weapons are not developed, produced, stockpiled, tested, acquired or stationed in Africa (including islands states) No explicit prohibition on the use of nuclear weapons, but prohibits research, dumping of radioactive waste and armed attacks on nuclear installations Supports use of nuclear energy, science and technology for peaceful purposes Two additional protocols for the five nuclear-weapon states (NWS) to sign and ratify and thus respect the status of the zone Negative security assurances by the NWS not to use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against states that have formally renounced them
Additional Protocols Protocol I: invites all NWS to agree that they will not use or threat to use a nuclear explosive device against a Party to the treaty or in the territory (signed by all NWS, ratified by all except the US) Protocol II: invites the NWS to agree not to test nuclear explosive devices anywhere within the African NWFZ (signed by all NWS, ratified by all except the US) Protocol II: addressing states in control of territories within the African NWFZ, invites France and Spain to respect the provisions of the treaty - France signed and ratified, not Spain which is a non-nuclear weapon state Spain claimed that three of its territories the Canary Islands and two coastal enclaves in Morocco, Ceuta and Melila are an integral part of the EU and not included in the NWFZ Spain also argues that the treaty does not contain global non-proliferation or disarmament provisions that it has not already signed
The Nuclear Weapon Free Zone The Treaty of Pelindaba quite similar to other NWFZ treaties (the Treaty of Tlatelolco and the Treaty of Rarotonga), but goes further Contains special provisions for dismantling existing nuclear-weaponrelated facilities Relatively few countries ratified within the first couple of years 20 ratifications still missing among the 54 signatory states, possible reasons include lack of capacity and/or prioritisation The Forum of Nuclear Regulatory Bodies in Africa (FNRBA) launched in December 2009 (32 African states members as of March 2012) FNRBA aims to provide enhancement of nuclear safety and security and complements the work of the IAEA s Nuclear Security Programme in Africa
African states & the NPT All African states except South Sudan (likely to become a member) are parties to the Non-Proliferation treaty (NPT), making up almost 1/3 of the NPT state parties Limited involvement in debates and pushing for new policies at the Review Conferences (RevCons) Greater engagement at the 2010 RevCon than before, may partly be explained by the entry into force of the African NWFZ in July 2009 A number of African states expressed support for a civil society proposal for a Nuclear Weapons Convention
UN First Committee Responsible for disarmament and related international security questions Meets for a 4-5 weeks session in October every year after the General Assembly General Debate All UN member states may attend the sessions Often fails to make good use of its potential repetitive and largely redundant resolutions voted on every year African states not been among the most active countries In recent years, several African states have made statements individually and as groups (NAM, NAC, the De-alerting Group)
Conference on Disarmament (CD) Multilateral negotiating forum for disarmament and arms control Remained deadlocked since the conclusion of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) in 1996 all decisions made by consensus, often blocking discussions and negotiations Counts 65 member states, including all the nine nuclear-armed states, with only 12 African states CD member states faced criticism for their restrictive attitude towards membership expansion Tanzania expressed interest in membership, and requests made by Ghana and Libya, but been denied so far
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) Bans the testing of any nuclear weapon device and seeks to ensure that testing of nuclear weapons is permanently prohibited Negotiated at the CD in Geneva and opened for signature in 1996 (not yet in force) Egypt s ratification (pending) is mandatory (one of the 44 Annex 2 countries) Egypt linked its lack of ratification of the CTBT to Israel s nuclear stance - stated that it does not wish to ratify before Israel joins the NPT, as this is the only way realize a Middle East free of nuclear weapons
UNSC resolution 1540 (2005) Obliges states to refrain from supporting by any means non-state actors from developing, acquiring, manufacturing, possessing, transporting, transferring or using nuclear, chemical or biological weapons and their delivery systems Legally binding for all UN member states Binding obligations on all states to establish domestic controls to prevent proliferation the 1540 Committee Deficient reporting to the Committee by African States, and rarely with sufficient details (South Africa the exception) Bureaucratic and financial resources weak + reporting fatigue Most North African coastal countries have submitted reports, and the African states which have fallen victim of attacks by non-state actors (Tanzania, Kenya, Algeria)
Nuclear security summit March 2012 53 heads of state government attended the Nuclear Security Summit in Seoul, South Korea Main outcome: Seoul Communiqué, builds on the objectives and measures set out in the 2010 Washington Communiqué None of the five participating African states at the 2010 Nuclear Security Summit made national commitments South Africa has taken action on securing nuclear materials Lack of engagement by the other participating African countries suggest that nuclear security is not a high priority on the African continent
Africa: multiple groupings African Union (AU): 54 African states (+ Morocco), played a significant role in negotiating and ratifying the Treaty of Pelindaba, but not marked itself as a significant actor in the work to eliminate nuclear weapons The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): represents 2/3 of UN member states, played a significant role at the 2010 NPT RevCon and has a working group on disarmament The New Agenda Coalition (NAC): composed of seven middle powers seeking to create a nuclear-weapons-free world, has consistently submitted resolutions calling for a nuclear-free world to the UN First Committee
African experiences According to the IAEA, Algeria, Egypt, Ghana, Libya, Morocco, Nigeria and South Africa currently have operational nuclear research reactors The New Partnership for Africa s Development (NEPAD) recognised nuclear material as an alternative energy source for Africa Many African countries have uranium ore deposits, a key ingredient in the production of most nuclear weapons Niger and Namibia amongst the main suppliers of uranium to the international community Some African states have been engaged in developing nuclear weapons and some have worked for a nuclear-free world
South Africa The only known country in the world to have developed nuclear weapons and then later voluntarily dismantled them Stockpile of six nuclear weapons when President de Klerk ordered a halt of the programme in 1989 Acceded to the NPT in 1991, signed a Comprehensive Safeguards Agreement with IAEA the same year Claimed that the programme had a purely deterrent value Has nuclear research reactors and two nuclear power reactors, intended for civil nuclear energy purposes Member of the CD in 1996, and a member of NAM and NAC
Algeria The first French nuclear weapons tests (atmospheric and underground) conducted in Algeria between 1960 and 1966 After independence, Algeria launched its nuclear programme in the early 1980s Speculations of a nuclear weapons programme in co-operation with China and Argentina in the 1980s/90s, but the IAEA has found little evidence for such a programme Accepted IAEA Safeguards in 1992 (pressure from the US) and joined the NPT in 1995 Currently two operational nuclear research reactors, both intended for civilian nuclear energy purposes
Egypt Not engaged in any significant efforts to develop a nuclear weapons capability, instead focused on conventional forces Initiated a nuclear programme in 1954 and acquired a nuclear research reactor from the Soviet Union in 1961 Discarded its nuclear ambitions after the defeat in the Six-Day War in 1967, and signed the NPT the following year IAEA: Egypt is one of seven African countries possessing nuclear research reactors A bridge between the Arab region and Africa - hosted the conference for the signing of the Treaty of Pelindaba Central in the on-going process of possibly creating a weapons of mass destruction free zone in the Middle East
Libya Ratified the NPT in 1975 and five years later reached an agreement with the IAEA on international inspections President Qadhafi proclaimed in the mid- and late 1970s that Libya was determined to acquire nuclear weapons Co-operated with various states to assemble the necessary technology, may have had the theoretical capability to develop certain nuclear weapons December 2003: announced that it would destroy all of its biological, chemical and nuclear weapons and allowed for international inspections According to the IAEA, Libya currently has one research reactor and have received assistance regarding the adoption of nuclear energy as a means of generating electricity
Nigeria IAEA: Nigeria has operational nuclear research reactors but not initiated a nuclear weapons programme Not expressed a desire to establish a weapons programme Engaged in the work to eliminate nuclear weapons in the process developing the NWFZ and the joint group of experts drafting the treaty text Part of the African Group in the UN First Committee and the CD + NAM and the De-alerting Group One of several African states in the process of investigating the feasibility of developing nuclear power plants for generation of electricity, and the IAEA has provided research assistance to Nigeria on this matter
Future prospects Weapons of mass destruction remain a low priority Some African states (South Africa and Egypt) involved in the work to eliminate nuclear weapons The prospects of a Middle East WMD free zone most likely an important issue in the NPT Preparatory Committees leading up to the next Review Conference (2015) Only six of the participating countries at the 2012 Nuclear Security Summit in Seoul were African African States may play a significant role in international negotiations Demonstrated willingness to act on issues that does not affect them directly and could potentially play a significant role in the international discourse on nuclear weapons as well