March To Victory The Invasion of Normandy and Liberation of France I. Introduction: To begin with, to have a foundation of understanding of the conduct of military operations, one should have an understanding of basic theory, principles, terms and concepts of warfare. I am reluctant to use the term modern warfare, as the two theorists who have shaped the conduct of war are in their prime in the early 18 th century. Both experienced Napoleonic Warfare, first hand. One is obvious Napoleon himself. Clausewitz isn t as widely known, outside of the military profession. However, his impact is immeasurable, especially with succeeding generations of German officers. Perhaps the single most important trait a good combat leader must possess is an understanding of the military terms and lexicon that his army uses. This professional jargon uses descriptive words that have a specific meaning. For example cover and concealment; suppress, neutralize, and destroy all have precise, quantitative values. II. The Theory of War: Napoléon Bonaparte: 15 August 1769 5 May 1821, Read over and over again the campaigns of Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, Gustavus, Turenne and Frederic the Great. This is the only way to become a great general Eight Major Changes to Warfare: Movement Destruction of the Enemy Artillery Logistics Corps Organization Scale of Warfare Attack Deep into Enemy Rear Central Position of the Commander 1
Carl Philipp Gottfried von Clausewitz: 1 June 1780 16 November 1831, was a Prussian general and military theorist who stressed the "moral" (meaning, in modern terms, psychological) and political aspects of war. His most notable work, Vom Kriege (On War), was unfinished at his death. III. The Principles of War: The USA use the following nine Principles of War: Objective Direct every military operation toward a clearly defined, decisive and attainable objective. The ultimate military purpose of war is the destruction of the enemy's ability to fight and will to fight. Offensive Seize, retain, and exploit the initiative. Offensive action is the most effective and decisive way to attain a clearly defined common objective. Offensive operations are the means by which a military force seizes and holds the initiative while maintaining freedom of action and achieving decisive results. This is fundamentally true across all levels of war. Mass Mass the effects of overwhelming combat power at the decisive place and time. Synchronizing all the elements of combat power where they will have decisive effect on an enemy force in a short period of time is to achieve mass. Massing effects, rather than concentrating forces, can enable numerically inferior forces to achieve decisive results, while limiting exposure to enemy fire. Economy of Force Employ all combat power available in the most effective way possible; allocate minimum essential combat power to secondary efforts. Economy of force is the judicious employment and distribution of forces. No part of the force should ever be left without purpose. The allocation of available combat power to such tasks as limited attacks, defense, delays, deception, or even retrograde operations is measured in order to achieve mass elsewhere at the decisive point and time on the battlefield.... Maneuver Place the enemy in a position of disadvantage through the flexible application of combat power. Maneuver is the movement of forces in relation to the enemy to gain positional advantage. Effective maneuver keeps the enemy off balance and protects the force. It is used to exploit successes, to preserve freedom of action, and to reduce vulnerability. It continually poses new problems for the enemy by rendering his actions ineffective, eventually leading to defeat. Unity of Command For every objective, seek unity of command and unity of effort. At all levels of war, employment of military forces in a manner that masses combat power toward a common objective requires unity of command and unity of effort. Unity of command means that all the forces are under one responsible commander. It requires a single commander with the requisite authority to direct all forces in pursuit of a unified purpose. Security Never permit the enemy to acquire unexpected advantage. Security enhances freedom of action by reducing vulnerability to hostile acts, influence, or surprise. Security results from the measures taken by a commander to protect his forces. 2
Surprise Strike the enemy at a time or place or in a manner for which he is unprepared. Surprise can decisively shift the balance of combat power. By seeking surprise, forces can achieve success well out of proportion to the effort expended. Surprise can be in tempo, size of force, direction or location of main effort, and timing. Deception can aid the probability of achieving surprise. Simplicity Prepare clear, uncomplicated plans and concise orders to ensure thorough understanding. Everything in war is very simple, but the simple thing is difficult. Simplicity contributes to successful operations. Simple plans and clear, concise orders minimize misunderstanding and confusion. IV. THE ELEMENTS OF COMBAT POWER Combat power has eight elements: Leadership. Information. Mission Command. Maneuver. Intelligence. Firepower. Sustainment. Protection. V. Mission: The mission is a task, together with the purpose, that clearly indicates the action to be taken and the reason therefore. Commanders analyze a mission as the commander s intent two echelons above them, specified tasks, and implied tasks. They also consider the mission of adjacent units to understand how they contribute to the decisive operation of their higher headquarters. Results of that analysis yield the essential tasks that with the purpose of the operation clearly specify the action required. This analysis produces the unit s mission statement a clear statement of the action to be taken and the reason for taking it. The mission statement contains the elements of who, what, when, where, and why, but should never specify how. 3
VI. Commander s Intent The commander s intent is a clear and concise expression of the purpose of the operation and the desired military end state that supports mission command, provides focus to the staff, and helps subordinate and supporting commanders act to achieve the commander s desired results without further orders, even when the operation does not unfold as planned. During planning, the initial commander's intent drives course of action development. In execution, the commander s intent guides disciplined initiative as subordinates make decisions when facing unforeseen opportunities or countering threats. Commanders develop their intent statement personally. It must be easy to remember and clearly understood by commanders and staffs two echelons lower in the chain of command. The more concise the commander s intent, the easier it is to recall and understand. VII. Main and Supporting Efforts Commanders designate Main and Supporting Efforts to establish clear priorities of support and resources among subordinate units. The Main Effort is a designated subordinate unit whose mission at a given point in time is most critical to overall mission success. It is usually weighted with the preponderance of combat power. (see IV above) a. Main Effort The main effort is primary action used to focus on achieving objectives that lead to victory. Of all the actions going on within our command, we recognize one as the most critical to success at that moment. The unit assigned responsibility for accomplishing this key mission is designated as the main effort the focal point upon which converges the combat power of the force. The main effort receives priority for support of any kind. It must be clear to all other units in the command that they must support that unit in the accomplishment of its mission. The main effort becomes a harmonizing force for a subordinate s initiative. Faced with a decision, we ask ourselves: How can I best support the main effort? Typically, commanders shift the main effort one or more times during execution. Designating a main effort temporarily prioritizes resource allocation. When commanders designate a unit as the main effort, it receives priority of support and resources in order to maximize combat power. Commanders establish clear priorities of support, and they shift resources and priorities to the Main Effort as circumstances and the Commander s Intent require. Commanders may designate a unit conducting a shaping operation as the main effort until the decisive operation commences. However, the unit with primary 4
responsibility for the decisive operation then becomes the main effort upon the execution of the decisive operation. b. Supporting Effort is a designated subordinate unit with a mission that supports the success of the main effort. Commander s resource supporting efforts with the minimum assets necessary to accomplish the mission. Forces often realize success of the main effort through success of supporting efforts. VIII. The Prussian/German Influence on War a. Prussian virtues refers to the virtues associated with the historical Kingdom of Prussia, especially its militarism and the ethical code of the Prussian army, but also bourgeois values as influenced by Lutheranism and Calvinism. It has also significantly influenced wider German culture, such as the contemporary German stereotypes of efficiency, austerity and discipline. b. The German General Staff, originally the Prussian General Staff and officially Great General Staff (Großer Generalstab), was a full-time body at the head of the Prussian Army and later, the German Army, responsible for the continuous study of all aspects of war, and for drawing up and reviewing plans for mobilization or campaign. It existed unofficially from 1806, and was formally established by law in 1814, the first general staff in existence. It was distinguished by the formal selection of its officers by intelligence and proven merit rather than patronage or wealth, and by the exhaustive and rigorously structured training which its staff officers undertook. Its rise and development gave the German armed forces a decisive strategic advantage over their adversaries for nearly a century and a half. IX. Military Aspects of Terrain and its Effect on Military Operations: Key Terrain: Location or Area which the seizure, retention, or control of affords a marked advantage to either combatant. Decisive Terrain: Key terrain that MUST be seized, retained or controlled is necessary to mission accomplishment. Remember the Acronym: OAKOC: o Observation and Fields of Fire, o Avenues of Approach. o Key Terrain o Obstacles o Cover and Concealment, A simple analysis of the terrain uses the factors of OAKOC to aide the unit leaders as they plan the defense of attack. 5