Asian Social Science; Vol. 14, No. 4; 2018 ISSN 1911-2017 E-ISSN 1911-2025 Published by Canadian Cener of Science and Educaion The Role of Hoe and Self-efficacy on Nurses Subjecive Well-being Ruiming Liu 1, Pan Zeng 1 & Peng Quan 1 1 Guangdong Medical Universiy, Dongguan, China Corresondence: Peng Quan, Mailbox No. 1306, Guangdong Medical Universiy, Songshanhu Lake, Dongguan 523808, China. Tel: 86-769-2289-6266. E-mail: n2001@21cn.com Received: January 26, 2018 Acceed: February 2, 2018 Online Published: March 20, 2018 doi:10.5539/ass.v14n418 URL: hs://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v14n418 Absrac Alhough subjecive well-being is considered imoran for nurses, he relaionshi beween hoe, self-efficacy, and subjecive well-being among nurses has rarely been assessed. This sudy uroses o exlore he relaionshis beween hoe, self-efficacy, and subjecive well-being. The analysis relies on daa from 1757 female nurses in 3 hosials in China. Nurses comleed a demograhic form, General Self-efficacy Scale, Hoe Scale, General Well-Being Schedule. A mediae model of he hyohesized relaionshis beween he consrucs was esed. Significan direc relaionshis of hoe, self-efficacy, and subjecive well-being were dislayed. Mediaion analyses reveal ha he imac of self-efficacy on subjecive well-being is arially mediaed by wo comonens of hoe, agency and ahways. Hoe was shown o be a key mediaor for he relaionshis beween self-efficacy and subjecive well-being. These findings advance curren undersandings on he hoeful hinking in nurses. Keywords: self-efficacy, hoe, subjecive well-being, mediaion analysis 1. Inroducion Subjecive well-being (SWB) is one of he mos imoran indicaors of eole s evaluaions of heir lives. SWB includes oimism, life saisfacion, and osiive emoions. SWB has been considered affec various domains of life such as work erformance, menal healh (Diener & Ryan, 2009). For nurses, SWB is associaed wih heir life saisfacion and he qualiy of nursing services (Béga, Ellefsen, & Severinsson, 2005). Increased workloads and job demands conribue o decreases in SWB and higher levels of burnou in nurses. Previous research has focused on normal oulaions, ye research on nurses SWB is relaively scan. I is aricularly valuable o sudy nurses SWB. Self-efficacy is a belief ha one can effecively deal wih hardshis and reach goals (Bandura, 1997). High self-efficacy is relaed o high SWB and good hysical condiion, while low self-efficacy is relaed o low SWB and deression (Weiss, Freund, & Wiese, 2012). Peole end o avoid aciviies ha hey canno handle, and involved in siuaions ha hey can coe wih. Research indicaed ha nurses self-efficacy influences he qualiy of heir aien care (Dunn, Osborne, & Link, 2014). Nurses wih low self-efficacy ofen lack confidence in communicaing wih aiens. Therefore, hey failed o rovide medical care ha me aiens needs (Sum, Husman, & Brem, 2012). Hoe is a cogniive consruc which reflecs eole s moivaion and caaciy o srive oward ersonal goals (Snyder e al., 2002). Hoe and self-efficacy are differen consrucs. Self-efficacy means he execancy ha one can erform behaviors, whereas hoe refers he execancies ha one can aain goals. Psychomeric sudy shows ha hoe includes wo imoran dimensions: agency and ahways (Geraghy, Wood, & Hyland, 2010). Agency reflecs a erson s erceived caabiliy o acively and consanly engage in goal aainmen. Pahways insead refers o a erson s erceived caabiliy o generae he necessary roues ha aids in goal aainmen(yavas, Babakus, & Karaee, 2013). A loss of hoe ofen leads o losses, illness, imoverishmen and life-hreaening siuaions (Herh, 1990). When hoe is los, here is no reason o work hard o leave adverse siuaions, because here is no way ou (Shea & Hurley, 1964). Sudy indicaed hoe redics self-efficacy and oimism (Magalea & Oliver, 1999). Hoe, self-efficacy, and oimism are relaed. Hoeful erson incline o have a high sense of self-efficacy (Waddell e al., 2015). In bad siuaions, individuals wih high self-efficacy would find alernaive new goals and focus on hose new goals. Therefore, hey would reduce menal suffering ha resul from he unaainable goals. Hoeless erson have no 18
execaion ha anyhing can hel hem ou of heir bad siuaions. Thus, hoeless erson do no se goals. Also, hoe significanly redics SWB (Alarcon, Bowling, & Khazon, 2013). There is a significan relaionshi beween hoe and life saisfacion. Hoelessness creaes low self-efficacy and oor SWB (Seca e al., 2014). Moreover, faih, relaionshis, heling ohers and osiive hinking heled eole o have hoe, hoe had a osiive influence on heir job saisfacion (Duggleby, Cooer, & Penz, 2009). I is reasonable o deduce ha hoe can lay a role as a mediaor beween self-efficacy and SWB. Furher undersanding of he conce of hoe in nurses may hel o develo sraegies o reduce burnou and increase SWB. There is a need o undersand he underlying mechanism of his relaionshi. This sudy aimed o invesigae he associaions beween self-efficacy, SWB, and hoe, esecially for nurses by means of mediaion analysis. The research quesions were as follows: (i) Do he wo comonens of hoe (agency and ahways) affec self-efficacy and SWB? (ii)how do he consrucs of agency and ahways, self-efficacy, and SWB inerrelae? We hyohesize ha agency and ahways would lay a mediaion role beween hese relaionshis. Based on he heoreical knowledge menioned above, he following hyoheses were formulaed: Hyohesis 1 (H1): self-efficacy (X) osiively affecs SWB (Y). Hyohesis 2 (H2): agency (M 1 ) and ahways (M 2 ) lay mediaion roles beween self-efficacy and SWB. 2. Mehod 2.1 Paricians The daa was gahered from 1757 female nurses in 3 hosials locaed in wo ciies (Dongguan and Zhanjiang) of China beween June and Seember 2015. Their average age was 31.57 ± 5.37years (range from 23 o 37 years). 1124 had a four-year college educaion, ohers had communiy college educaion. Paricians were all volunary. They were informed he rocedure of his sudy. The sudy rocedure was reviewed by he insiuional review board of Guangdong medical universiy (ehical aroval number: PJ2013039). Researchers disribued inform consen forms and insrumens o aricians. All aricians were no currenly undergoing reamen for a sychological disorder. I ook abou 20 minues o fill ou he quesionnaire. The aricians were each given 2 USD for heir ariciaion. Paricians were free o wihdraw a any ime wihou enaly or loss of benefis. Quesionnaires were disribued o he aricians. 146 incomlee quesionnaires were excluded. The resonse rae was 91.7%. 2.2 The Measures Self-efficacy. 10 iems comrise General Self-efficacy Scale (Zhang & Schwarzer, 1995). Paricians indicae heir agreemen wih saemens on a 4-oin Liker scale (1= No a all rue, 4= Exacly rue). For examle: I can always manage o solve difficul roblems if I ry hard enough. The General Self-efficacy Scale has a reored Cronbach s α beween.75 and.94 (Löve, Moore, & Hensing, 2012). In his sudy, he Cronbach s α was found o be acceable a.68. Hoe. Adul hoe scale (AHS) is a 12-iem measure of a resonden's level of hoe, four are disracers, four are agency hinking, and for are ahways hinking. Subjecs resond on an eigh oin coninuum (1 = definiely false, o 8 = definiely rue). The scale is divided ino wo subscales ha comrise Snyder's cogniive model of hoe: (1) agency (i.e., goal-direced energy) and (2) ahways (i.e., lanning o accomlish goals). For examle: I can hink of many ways o ge ou of a jam (Pahways), I energeically ursue my goals (Agency). Cronbach s α have been reored ranging from.74 o.84 (Chan, Piman, & Munoz, 2013). In his sudy, he Cronbach s α was found o be acceable a.62(agency), and.68(ahways). Subjecive well-being. The General Well-Being Schedule is a widely used self-reored quesionnaire measuring SWB. I consiss of 18 iems, 14 iems 6-oin Liker scale, and 4 iems are 10-oin Liker scale. For examle: Have you been bohered by nervousness or your nerves. The oal score ranges from 0 o 110. High scores reresen beer well-being. The GWB is hyohesized o conain six dimensions: anxiey, deression, general healh, osiive well-being, self-conrol, and vialiy. There is a reored Cronbach s α ranging from.68 o.85 (Taylor e al., 2003). In his sudy, he Cronbach s α was found o be acceable a.88. All hree measures have an exer anel back-ranslaion rocedure. Measures have been ranslaed ino Chinese and ranslae i back ino English and comare he wo. 2.3 Daa Analysis Daa analyses were carried ou using SPSS 23.0. To assess common mehod bias, we emloyed Harman's one-facor es. Cronbach s α was calculaed o assess inernal reliabiliy. The correlaional relaionshis beween self-efficacy, hoe and SWB were described by Pearson correlaions. To es wheher hoe mediaes he relaionshi beween self-efficacy and SWB, he Preacher Hayes rocedure wih boosra analyses was used 19
(Hayes, 2013). Boosraing mehod was used o assess significance of indirec effecs of self-efficacy on SWB hrough hoe. 3. Resuls In curren sudy, all variables were colleced from same resonden on same ime. In his way, daa were exosed o oenial for common mehod bias (Rigering & Weizel, 2013). We conduced a os hoc es of he common mehod bias. The Harman s single facor es is indicaed if a single facor emerges as a dominan facor exlaining mos of he variance (> 50%) in he daase. In he curren sudy, he unroaed rincial comonen analysis of all iems wih a single facor soluion yielded 10 facors wih an eigenvalue larger han he value of 1. Moreover, hese 10 facors exlained a oal of 51.36% variance. Furhermore, he facor wih he greaes eigenvalue only accouned for 21.08% variance. I rovided evidence ha common mehod bias was no driving our findings. The relaionshis among self-efficacy, agency, ahways and SWB were invesigaed by Pearson correlaion. All variables are osiively relaed (rs range from.56 o.73, s <.01). To examine he mediaion model we roosed in Hyohesis 2, we conduced a mediaion analysis. Firsly, All hree models are significan (F M1 =945.790, F M2 =1950.558, F Y =502.018). We hen alied he Preacher Hayes rocedure rocess, wih boosra analyses based on 5,000 resamles (Hayes, 2013). As shown in Table 3, boh mediaion effecs hrough agency and hrough ahways are significan. The direc effec from self-efficacy o SWB is also significan. All effecs are osiive. The resuls sugges a arially mediaion, which means mediaed effec and direc effec boh exis (Zhao, Lynch, & Chen, 2010). Table 1. Mediaion Analysis Resuls M 1: agency M 2: ahways Y: Subjecive Well-being Saisic Saisic Saisic Consan 2.927**.2031 14.412 <.001 3.894**.174 22.323 <.001 3.814** 1.051 3.629 <.001 X: Self-efficacy.233**.008 30.754 <.001.288**.007 44.165 <.001.591**.049 12.004 <.001 M 1: agency 1.356*.094 14.397 <.001 M 2: ahways.999*.110 9.108 <.001 R 2.268.431.369 F 945.790** 1950.558** 502.018** Boosra Analyses Effec Boo 95% BCCI [LL, UU] Indirec effec of Self-efficacy hrough agency on Subjecive Well-being.316.026 [.270,.370] Indirec effec of Self-efficacy hrough ahways on Subjecive Well-being.288.033 [.223,.353] Direc effec of Self-efficacy on Subjecive Well-being.591.049 [.495,.688] Noe. The coefficiens are unsandardized. Boosra analyses based on 5,000 resamles; LL = lower limi; UL = uer limi; = sandard error; BCCI = bias correced boosra confidence inerval. ** <.001 (wo-sided) 4. Discussion Resuls of his invesigaion generally suor he mediaion role of hoe. We furher examined he mediaion effecs of wo comonen of hoe. The osiive relaionshi beween hoe, SWB and self-efficacy suors our assumion. We argue ha self-efficacy redics SWB in boh ways, direcly and indirecly hrough agency and ahways. The resuls confirm ha wo comonens of hoe arially mediae he effec of self-efficacy on SWB. These resuls sugges ha increased self-efficacy rediced greaer agency and ahways hinking, which in urn rediced greaer SWB. Moreover, wo mediaors exlain more variance in SWB, comared wih he siuaion ha self-efficacy regress on SWB alone. For nurses, more hoeful hinking are emloyed in sress siuaions, a higher level of SWB is develoed. I is confirmed ha hoe is an imoran roecive facor for SWB. Agency hinking hels nurses susain heir moivaion o achieve goals, while ahways hinking hels nurses wihdraw effor and find alernaive roues o succeed. Moreover, ahways hinking frees nurses resources o romoe heir life in oher areas. I should be noed ha goal alernaion also would be associaed wih SWB. Boh agency and ahways hinking may hel a erson avoid accumulaed failure exeriences, which may resul in reduced SWB and enhanced sychological disress and deression. Hoeful nurses end o have more osiive emoion, which increases heir moivaion and SWB in urn. 20
Self-efficacy conribues o one s hoe. Self-efficacy is an oimisic consruc. Nurses who are self-efficacious can deal wih oenial sressors effecively. On he conrary, nurses who susec heir own abiliies o conrol sressful evens suffer more disresses which may imair heir level of funcioning. In ligh of his, high self-efficacy nurses incline o erceive sressful evens and obsacles wih less arehension and may regard his as a good chance for hem o rove hemselves. The resuls of his sudy demonsraed ha high self-efficacy nurses incline o creae more agency hinking o ursue goal, or more ahways hinking o generae alernaive ahs o succeed. This is consisen wih revious finding ha high self-efficacy nurses erceive ha hey are beer caable of accomlishing asks (Dunn e al., 2014). Prior research also suored ha high self-efficacy affecs how eole coe wih negaive evens (Asselmann, Wichen, Lieb, Höfler, & Beesdo-Baum, 2016). High self-efficacy nurses are able o generae more ahways and agency hinking han low self-efficacy nurses. Hoe is an imoran mediaor in he associaion beween self-efficacy and SWB. On one hand, imroving self-efficacy enables nurses o emloy high hoe o comba wih sressors, which in urn enhances SWB. On he oher hand, nurses who lacked hoeful hinking ofen failed o work wih high self-efficacy. Snyder s heory roosed ha hoeful houghs include goal-direced focus, finding available ahways, and being moivaed o achieve goals (Snyder e al., 2002). In line wih our findings, McGregor indicaed ha achievable goals is associaed wih well-being (McGregor & Lile, 1998). The findings indicae ha we should ay high aenion o hose nurses wih less self-efficacy, for he reason ha hey creae low hoe in dealing wih sressors, which in urn decrease heir SWB. Limiaions o his sudy were relaed o design. The sudy was a one-ime measuremen of he variables. The ossibiliies of generalizing o longiudinal cases need o be demonsraed. Fuure longiudinal sudies would be helful o furher undersand aerns of hoe, self-efficacy, SWB. Also on he issue of generalizaion, his research sudy was conduced in China. I would be ineresing o relicae he sudy in oher counries. Moreover, cross-secional daa do no allow making causal conclusion. Findings from he curren sudy inend o rovide imlicaion for inervenion sraegies on how o imrove nurses SWB. Our sudy conribues o revious research (Magalea & Oliver, 1999; Salanova, Lorene, Chambel, & Marínez, 2011) in he sense ha hoe is a owerful sychological mechanism ha arially mediaes he link beween self-efficacy and SWB, a leas among nurses.. This rovides us informaion o design effecive inervenion o imrove nurses SWB. To imrove SWB, i would be beer o focus more on hoe, which seems o have a remarkable influence on SWB. This sudy esablishes an inegraive model of self-efficacy, hoe, and SWB ha has a generaive effec on each relevan lieraure. The curren sudy no only enriches and exends our undersanding of SWB, bu also deeens our knowledge of hoe. References Alarcon, G. M., Bowling, N. A., & Khazon, S. (2013). Grea execaions: A mea-analyic examinaion of oimism and hoe. Personaliy & Ind. Diff., 54(7), 821-827. hs://doi.org/10.1016/j.aid.2012.12.004 Asselmann, E., Wichen, H. U., Lieb, R., Höfler, M., & Beesdo-Baum, K. (2016). Does low coing efficacy mediae he associaion beween negaive life evens and inciden sychoahology? A rosecive-longiudinal communiy sudy among adolescens and young aduls. Eidemiology & Psychiaric Sciences, 25(2), 1-10. hs://doi.org/10.1017/s204579601500013x Béga, I., Ellefsen, B., & Severinsson, E. (2005). Nurses' saisfacion wih heir work environmen and he oucomes of clinical nursing suervision on nurses' exeriences of well-being -- a Norwegian sudy. Journal of nursing managemen, 13(3), 221-230. hs://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2834.2004.00527.x Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of conrol: New York: Freeman. Chan, M. H., Piman, M. K., & Munoz, R. T. (2013). The Firs Tweny Years of he Will and he Ways: An Examinaion of Score Reliabiliy Disribuion on Snyder s Disosiional Hoe Scale. Journal of Hainess Sudies, 14(3), 723-729. hs://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9351-5 Diener, E., & Ryan, K. (2009). Subjecive well-being: A general overview. Souh African Journal of Psychology, 39(4), 391-406. hs://doi.org/10.1177/008124630903900402 Duggleby, W., Cooer, D., & Penz, K. (2009). Hoe, Self-Efficacy, Siriual Well-Being, and Job Saisfacion. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 65(11), 2376-2385. hs://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2009.05094.x Dunn, K. E., Osborne, C., & Link, H. J. (2014). High-Fideliy Simulaion and Nursing Suden Self-Efficacy: Does Training Hel he Lile Engines Know They Can? Nursing Educaion Persecives, 35(6), 403-404. hs://doi.org/10.5480/12-1041.1 21
Geraghy, A. W. A., Wood, A. M., & Hyland, M. E. (2010). Dissociaing he faces of hoe: Agency and ahways redic droou from unguided self-hel heray in oosie direcions. Journal of Research in Personaliy, 44(1), 155-158. hs://doi.org/10.1016/j.jr.2009.12.003 Hayes, A. F. (2013). Inroducion o Mediaion, Moderaion, and Condiional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Aroach. Herh, K. (1990). Relaionshi of hoe, coing syles, concurren losses, and seing o grief resoluion in he Elderly Widow(er). Research in Nursing & Healh, 13(2), 109-117. hs://doi.org/10.1002/nur.4770130207 Löve, J., Moore, C. D., & Hensing, G. (2012). Validaion of he Swedish ranslaion of he General Self-Efficacy scale. Qualiy of Life Research, 21(7), 1249-1253. hs://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-011-0030-5 Magalea, P. R., & Oliver, J. M. (1999). The hoe consruc, will, and ways: heir relaions wih self-efficacy, oimism, and general well-being. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55(5), 539 551. hs://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4679(199905)5553.0.co;2-g McGregor, I., & Lile, B. R. (1998). Personal rojecs, hainess, and meaning: on doing well and being yourself. J. of Personaliy & Social Psy., 74(2), 494-512. hs://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.74.2.494 Rigering, J., & Weizel, U. (2013). Work conex and emloyee behaviour as anecedens for inrareneurshi. Inernaional Enrereneurshi and Managemen Journal, 9(3), 337-360. Salanova, M., Lorene, L., Chambel, M. J., & Marínez, I. M. (2011). Linking ransformaional leadershi o nurses exra role erformance: he mediaing role of self efficacy and work engagemen. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 67(10), 2256-2266. hs://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2011.05652.x Shea, F., & Hurley, E. (1964). Hoelessness and Hellessness. Persecives in Psychiaric Care, 2(1), 32-38. hs://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6163.1964.b01391.x Snyder, C. R., Shorey, H. S., Cheavens, J., Pulvers, K. M., Adams, V. H., III, & Wiklund, C. (2002). Hoe and Academic Success in College. J. of Edu. Psy., 94(4), 820-826. hs://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.94.4.820 Seca, P., Abela, J. R. Z., Monzani, D., Greco, A., Hazel, N. A., & Hankin, B. L. (2014). Cogniive Vulnerabiliy o Deressive Symoms in Children: The Proecive Role of Self-efficacy Beliefs in a Muli-Wave Longiudinal Sudy. J. of Abnormal Child Psy., 42(1), 137-148. hs://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9765-5 Sum, G. S., Husman, J., & Brem, S. K. (2012). The Nursing Suden Self-Efficacy Scale: Develomen Using Iem Resonse Theory. Nursing Research, 61(3), 149-158. hs://doi.org/10.1097/nnr.0b013e318253a750 Taylor, J., Poson II, W. C., Haddock, C. K., Blackburn, G., Heber, D., Heymsfield, S., & Forey, J. (2003). Psychomeric characerisics of he General Well-Being Schedule (GWB) wih African American women. Qualiy of Life Research, 12(1), 31-39. hs://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022052804109 Waddell, J., Salding, K., Canizares, G., Navarro, J., Connell, M., Jancar, S.,... Vicor, C. (2015). Inegraing a Career Planning and Develomen Program ino he Baccalaureae Nursing Curriculum: Par I. Imac on Sudens Career Resilience. Inernaional Journal of Nursing Educaion Scholarshi, 12, 163. Weiss, D., Freund, A. M., & Wiese, B. S. (2012). Masering develomenal ransiions in young and middle adulhood: The inerlay of oenness o exerience and radiional gender ideology on women's self-efficacy and subjecive well-being. Develomenal Psy., 48(6), 1774. hs://doi.org/10.1037/a0028893 Yavas, U., Babakus, E., & Karaee, O. M. (2013). Does hoe moderae he imac of job burnou on fronline bank emloyees' in-role and exra-role erformances? Inernaional Journal of Bank Markeing, 31(1), 56-70(15). hs://doi.org/10.1108/02652321311292056 Zhang, J. X., & Schwarzer, R. (1995). Measuring oimisic self-beliefs: A Chinese adaaion of he General Self-Efficacy Scale. Psychologia An Inernaional Journal of Psychology in he Orien, 38(3), 174-181. Zhao, X., Lynch, J. G., & Chen, Q. (2010). Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myhs and Truhs abou Mediaion Analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2), 197-206. hs://doi.org/10.1086/651257 Coyrighs Coyrigh for his aricle is reained by he auhor(s), wih firs ublicaion righs graned o he journal. This is an oen-access aricle disribued under he erms and condiions of he Creaive Commons Aribuion license (h://creaivecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 22