Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) in Peace Agreements and UN Peacekeeping Mandates 1. Introduction Although there is no blue print for Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) programmes, there is a common view that the inclusion of coherent and detailed DDR programs in peace agreements and in the United Nation peacekeeping mandates is crucial for the implementation of the programmes and hence of great importance to achieve lasting peace. 1 This memorandum will look further into to what extend the DDR concerns was included in the Peace Agreements and UN Peacekeeping mandates in Mozambique, Guatemala, Sierra Leone, The Democratic Republic of Congo, Cote d Ivoire, and Liberia. 2. Disarmament and Demobilization - DD Disarmament entails the actual collection of arms and ammunition, while demobilization is the process that separates combatants from military service or armed troops (may include the establishment of camps and receiving areas where former combatants hand in their weapons and in return receive counseling, vocational training or economic assistance). However, for the United Nations Peacekeeping Operations, disarmament is closely associated with demobilization activities and will therefore be referred to as one group of actions - DD. Review of the content in Peace Agreements Protocol IV, paragraph III, in The General Peace Agreement for Mozambique, signed in 1992, states that the Cease-fire Commission (CCF) shall monitor and verify the disbanding of the private and irregular armed groups and shall collect their weapons and ammunition. The following paragraph explains how the CCF shall be composed, that the CCF shall be presided 1 IPA, 2002, A Framework for Lasting Disarmament, and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Crisis Situations. New York: International Peace Academy. United Nations Security Council, 2000. The Role of the United Nations Peacekeeping in Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration: Report of the Secretary-General. New York: United Nations. World Bank, 2002. Conflict, Peacebuilding and Development Cooperation: The World Bank Agenda. Background Note, October. Washington, DC: World Bank. World Bank, 1993. Demobilization and Reintegration of Military Personnel: The Evidence from Seven Country Case Studies. Africa Region Working Group on Demobilization and Reintegration of Military Personnel. Washington, DC: World Bank. UNDP, 2001. UNDP/Donor Mission to the Democratic Republic of Congo and the Great Lakes Region: Defining UNDP s Role in Disarmament, Demobilization and Durable Solutions (D3). Geneva: Emergency Response Division, United Nations Development Programme. DPKO, 1999. Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex-Combatants in a Peacekeeping Environment: Principles and Guidelines. New York: Lessons Learned Unit, Department of Peacekeeping Operations. ECHA, 2000. Background Article for Harnessing Institutional Capacities in Support of DDR of Former Combatants, ECHA DDR Working Group article, prepared by Praxis Group Ltd.
over by the United Nations, how the CFF shall be organized, and that it will have a general function of implementing the demobilization process, such as the registration of troops and the collection and destroying of weapons. The Peace Agreements in Guatemala, signed in the period 1994 to 1996, are divided into 11 agreements treating different issues. The Agreement on the Basis for the Legal Integration of the Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca (URNG) deals exclusively with the issue of DDR of the guerrilla forces. However, there is no detailed information on the DD part of the process. It only states that the DD activities will include services such as the provision of temporary documentation and vocational guidance, and that URNG shall transmit a list of nondemobilized members who are to be beneficiaries. Article VI in the Peace Agreement Between the Government of Sierra Leone and the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone, signed in 1999, establishes the National Commission on DDR to be responsible for the process. Part 4, article XVI, states that UNOMSIL and ECOMOG shall disarm all combatants of the RUF/SL, CDF, SLA and paramilitary groups, and that the SLA and their arms shall be placed under constant surveillance, as well as that the SLA shall be provided security guarantees by UNOMSIL. Chapter 9 Disarmament of Armed Groups, in The Cease Fire Agreement in the Democratic Republic of Congo, signed in 1999, states that the Joint Military Commission (JMC) with the assistance of the UN/OAU shall work out mechanisms for the tracking, disarming, cantoning and documenting all armed groups. The Comprehensive Peace Agreement between the Government of Liberia and the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) and the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) and Political Parties, signed in 2003, states in part two, article III, that the ECOWAS Interposition Force shall establish the conditions for the initial stages of DDR activities such as supervising the collection and monitoring the storage of arms. The following article requests that the International Stabilization Force (ISF) to later assume this responsibility. Part three, article VI, details the procedures of the DD program stating that all forces, including the Armed Forces of Liberia, shall withdraw to cantonment locations in accordance with a withdrawal and cantonment plan to be established by the ISF, and that all combatants shall remain in the declared and recorded locations until they proceed to reintegration. The same article further states that there shall be an interdisciplinary and interdepartmental National Commission for Disarmament, Demobilization, Rehabilitation and Reintegration (NCDDRR), working closely with the ISF to coordinate DDRR activities. The head document of the Linas-Marcoussis Agreement in Cote d Ivoire, signed in 2004, paragraph G states that the Government of National Reconciliation shall be responsible of organizing the regrouping and subsequent disarming of all forces. In paragraph VII, in the Annex named Programme of the Government of National Reconciliation, it further elaborates the need to establish a DDR program to be implemented under the supervision of the ECOWAS and the French forces.
Overview of the content in UN Peacekeeping Mandates Resolution 797 (1992), paragraph 7, calls upon the Government of Mozambique to finalize, in close coordination with the interim Special Representative, as soon as possible organizational and logistical preparations for the demobilization process. Resolution 1094 (1997), to establish the United Nations Mission in Guatemala, calls upon both parties to cooperate fully with the disarmament and demobilization of URNG combatants. The resolution further refers to a report of the Secretary General (S/1996/1045* 17 December 1996). This report presents a plan for the operational aspects of the DD program, including specific logistical and operational issues for the registration and storage of weapons in the URNG assembly points to be controlled by UN military observers. The report also calls on the URNG to provide the UN with detailed information on the number of its combatants and inventories of military material before the process is to begin. Resolution 1270 (1999) decides to establish the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone, mandating the mission to assist in the implementation of the DDR plan and to establish a presence at disarmament and demobilization centers. The resolution further stresses the urgent need for resources to finance the DDR process, and specifically calls upon all member States to contribute generously to the multidonor trust fund established by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. The following year, resolution 289 (2000) reinforces the previous resolution by calling upon the parties and all others involved to take steps to ensure that the DDR programme is fully implemented throughout the country. The mandate is also being revised to include the provision of security at all sites of the DDR programme and to guard and destruct all military equipment collected. Resolution 1291 (2000) decides to establish the Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo, mandating the Mission to develop an action plan for the overall implementation of the Ceasefire Agreement with particular emphasis on the comprehensive DDR programme and to supervise and verify the disengagement and redeployment of the parties' forces. Resolution 1493 (2003) decides to reinforce the Mission and authorizes MONUC to assist the Government of National Unity and Transition in disarming and demobilizing those Congolese combatants who may voluntarily decide to enter the DDR process within the framework of the Multi-Country Demobilization and Reintegration Programme, pending the establishment of a national DDR programme in coordination with the UNDP. Resolution 1509 (2003) decides that the Mission in Liberia shall have the mandate to assist in the development of cantonment sites and to provide security at these sites, to observe and monitor disengagement and cantonment of military forces of all the parties, to develop in cooperation with a number of actor an action plan for the overall implementation of the DDR programme, and to assist in the implementation of the programme. The resolution further stresses the importance of particular attention to the special needs of child combatants and women and addressing the inclusion of non-liberian combatants. Resolution 1528 (2004) establishes the Mission in Cote d Ivoire with the mandate to assist the Government of National Reconciliation to ensure the security of their cantonment sites, in the implementation of the national programme for the DDR, to guard military materiel handed over
by the former combatants and to secure, neutralize or destroy such materiel. It further mandates the Mission to ensure a regional approach and to coordinate closely with the United Nations missions in Sierra Leone and in Liberia. The implementation shall be done with special attention to the specific needs of women and children 3. Reintegration R Reintegration programs support the immediate and medium term social and economic inclusion of former combatants into their communities of origin or new communities. Review of the content in Peace Agreements Protocol IV, paragraph VI, in The General Peace Agreement for Mozambique defines that every "demobilized soldier" shall be registered and shall have received an identity card and a demobilization certificate in order to become civilians and to be accorded equal treatment by the State. Further a Reintegration Commission (CORE) shall be established and operate under the direct authority of CSC and be composed of representatives of the Government and RENAMO, and a presiding representative from the United Nations. The assignment of CORE shall be to effect the economic and social reintegration of demobilized soldiers. The Agreement on the Basis for the Legal Integration of the URNG in Guatemala states that the basic purpose of the reintegration process is to provide emergency assistance to former combatants and to create conditions conducive to a smooth transition to the definitive integration phase. The minimum requirements to be met during this phase are the provision of inputs and services appropriate to an emergency situation, beginning of training and employment programmes, the establishment of financial machinery to obtain the resources needed to launch the definitive integration phase, and the identification of social and economic programmes for the population as a whole that can provide assistance to former combatants who are to be integrated during the definitive integration phase. Inn the agreement there is a request for assistance from the international community to ensure completion of the initial integration stage. For the execution of the programme a Special Integration Commission shall be set up, with the participation of the Government of Guatemala, URNG and, in a consultative capacity, donor and cooperative countries and agencies. One year after the agreement, beneficiaries of both procedures shall become eligible for longer-term services provided by the Government, including financial, technical, legal and employment assistance and assistance in the areas of education, training and production projects with a view to ensuring their lasting integration into the economic, social and cultural life of the country, on the same terms as the rest of the Guatemalan population. Article IV of The Peace Agreement Between the Government of Sierra Leone and the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone establishes the National Commission on Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (NCDDR). Article XXVIII mandates the NCDRR to, in support of the International Community, provide appropriate financial and technical resources for post-war rehabilitation, reconstruction and development. It further specifies that special attention shall be given to women in formulating and implementing national rehabilitation, reconstruction and development programmes and that particular attention shall also
be given to the issue of child soldiers by addressing the special needs of these children in the DDR processes. For the rehabilitation of war victims, The Government, with the support of the International Community, shall design and implement a programme to be financed by special fund. Chapter 8 on United Nations Peacekeeping Mandate, in The Cease Fire Agreement in the Democratic Republic of Congo, mandates the mission to take appropriate measures for the reintegration into society of members of the Armed Groups. However, the chapter on Disarmament of Armed Groups does not refer to this reintegration process. Part three of the Liberian Peace Agreement establishes an interdisciplinary and interdepartmental National Commission for Disarmament, Demobilization, Rehabilitation and Reintegration (NCDDRR), to coordinate DDRR activities. However there are no specifications in the agreement on what the responsibilities of this group on the issue of reintegration. Part nine deals with post-conflict rehabilitation and reconstruction but this refers to refugees, displaced persons and vulnerable groups and not to ex-combats. The Linas-Marcoussis Agreement in Cote d Ivoire requires the Government to establish a DDR programme to ensure the social reintegration of military personnel of every origin to be implemented with the support of international development partners. However, there are no specifications on the content of this programme. Overview of the content in UN Peacekeeping Mandates Resolution 797 (1992) for Mozambique mandates the UNOMOZ to coordinate and monitor humanitarian assistance operations for demobilized military personnel and requests United Nations programmes and specialized agencies to provide appropriate assistance for the implementation of major tasks (reintegration could be interpreted as one of those tasks). Resolution 1094 (1997 to establish the United Nations Mission in Guatemala doesn t mention reintegration but it refers to the to the Secretary General Report (S/1996/1045* 17 December 1996). This report doesn t elaborate in the reintegration but refers to the implementation of the Peace Agreement the Basis for the Legal Integration of the URNG. The first resolution for the Mission in Sierra Leone, 1270 (1999), mandates the mission to assist in the implementation of the DDR plan but do not specify the role of the Mission in reintegration, nor does the second resolution 289 (2000). However, calls upon all member States to contribute generously to the multidonor trust fund established by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Resolution 1291 (2000) for the Democratic Republic of Congo mandates the Mission to develop an action plan for the overall implementation of the Ceasefire Agreement including a reintegration program. The following resolution 1493 (2003) mentions the pending establishment of a national DDR programme in coordination with the UNDP. Resolution 1509 (2003) for Liberia mandates the mission to develop an action plan for DDR programme and stresses the importance of particular attention to the special needs of child
combatants and women and addressing the inclusion of non-liberian combatants in the reintegration process, but does not specify any particular activities. Resolution 1528 (2004) for Cote d Ivoire states, apart from the support of the general DDR programme with special attention to women and children, that in the framework of reintegration that the mission shall coordinate closely with the United Nations missions in Sierra Leone and in Liberia in the implementation of a voluntary repatriation and resettlement programme for foreign ex-combatants with relevant international financial support. 4. Discussion It is a common understanding that a crucial aspect of any peace settlement concerns the degree of detail provided to guide the implementation. However, in above overview of six Peace Agreements and six UN Peacekeeping Mandates it can be concluded that they often contain silences on key issues in the DDR process. Although such silences may be a means to avoid derailment of negotiations, they may also result from negotiators not appreciating what is involved in DDR. First of all, the key terms disarmament, demobilization and reintegration are often not being defined. When guidelines to what constitutes DDR are absent it becomes very unclear how to achieve it. Another significant issue for effective implementation of DDR programs concerns the data on weapons and the number of fighters on which the programs are to be based. Leaders might genuinely not know the strength of their forces or there may be no inventory of weapons available. Such figures can also become part of the resettlement between the negotiating parties, with each side inflating its troops and weapon numbers. However, as accurate information as possible is necessary in order to understand the extent of the DDR programs. During the negotiation of a peace settlement there is a potential clash of organizational interests over timetables for DDR. Political expediency and the desire to cut costs have in many cases led to unrealistic timetables being set. The failure to reach such unrealistic timetable may have negative effect on the peace settlement as a whole. Most of the Peace Agreements and UN PK Mandates viewed in this paper have failed to address the crucial issue of reintegration. As a result of this there are many former combatants have neither found employment nor have been given the land or other benefits, as they had been promised. As the issues of landownership and the distribution of resources are often precipitate to civil war, it is crucial to address the issue of reintegration as soon as possible in the post-conflict situation in order for violence not to return. Finally, although it is of outmost importance that the DDR process is attuned to the specific environment in the local and national situation, the viability and the feasibility of the Peace Agreements and UN peacekeeping mandates on DDR issues are key factors to ensure that appropriate DDR programs are developed and implemented.