Key Words: work-family conflict, social support, nursing, gender roles, multiple regression

Transcription

1 - Richenda Koeberg, Psychology Department, Rhodes University Bernadette King, Psychology Department, Rhodes University Abstract This study tested work-to-family (WIF) and family-to-work (FIW) conflict of professional/registered nurses (PN/RN) in the South African context, specifically within the Cacadu District (Eastern Cape). The aim of this study was to make human resource related recommendations based on the results of existing scales that measure WIF and FIW. This was conducted through investigating how demographic characteristics impacts on WIF and FIW, and how social support and gender role ideologies mediates the relationship to WIF and FIW. This was a professional and context specific study focussing on PN/RNs in the Cacadu District, Eastern Cape. A multiple regression analysis was used to determine the predictive value of the demands from the work and home on WIF and FIW. There were various significant results reported in this study, where individuals that were of the opinion that working is part of being a good mother predicted variance on time-based FIW (β = 0.24, p < 0.05); younger PN/RNs experienced more strain-based WIF than their older counterparts (β = 0.24; p < 0.05); and role compatibility existed between gender ideologies of family and work in this profession. Results also indicated that PN/RNs that had elderly person(s) in their household impacted on gender role ideologies, thereby reinforcing these ideologies. Social support received from family were reported to have an impact on those PN/RNs that were currently furthering their studies (β = 0.22; p < 0.05). Key Words: work-family conflict, social support, nursing, gender roles, multiple regression Introduction Work-family conflict is a form of inter-role conflict, where demands from one role make it difficult to meet the demands from another role (Frone & Rice, 1987; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985; Kahn,

2 Wolfe, Quinn, & Snoek, 1964; Williams & Alliger, 1994). Cortese, Colombo and Ghislieri (2010) and Frone, Russell and Cooper (1992) identified that workfamily conflict may be a source of stress as it may diminish psychological and physical well-being. The Role Stress Theory s central assumption is that high levels of demands in everyday life create stress (Nordenmark, 2004). Research conclusions supporting the role stress theory maintain that multiple social roles are most commonly documented as a burden on the individual because of the expectations inherent to each social role (Nordenmark, 2004; Tengelin, Arman, Wikström, & Dellve, 2011). In the context of this study, Breier, Mgqolozana and Wildschut (2009) noted that the nursing profession is a predominantly African female profession in South Africa. This is because teaching and nursing were important professions for women and was historically seen as the only available profession for black women (Horwitz, 2011; van der Merwe, 1999). Multi-dimensional work-family conflict The study of work-family conflict has been measured in two ways, namely work interfering with family (WIF) and family interfering with work (FIW). Researchers such as Greenhaus and Beutell have also identified and measured the various forms of work-family conflict (as cited in (Carlson, Kacmar, & Williams, 2000). Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) outlined three important potential forms of work-family conflict, these are time-based, strainbased, and behaviour based conflict. Time-based conflict is occurs when time spent in one role (work) decreases the time available to spend in another (family). Time-based work interfering with family is positively related to the number of hours worked and commuted per week, the frequency of overtime worked, irregular shiftwork, and inflexibility of work schedules (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). In the family domain, sources of time-based conflict are concerned with the characteristics and living arrangements of the family (Bryson, Bryson, & Johnson, 1978). According to these authors large family size is more time demanding than smaller families, and large family size is associated with higher levels of work-family conflict. However, in African families this may not hold true since family members will assist in the division of household labour, thus relating back to the concept of ubuntu and the collectivism culture. Strain-based conflict is the emotional interference of one role to the next (Cooper, Dewe, & O'Driscoll, 2001; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Bartolomé and Evans (1979) state that stressful events at work can result in the difficulty to perform family tasks. Roles are incompatible if strains of one role affect the way in which the other role is performed. Behaviour-based conflict is the mismatch of attitudes, values, and behaviours between work and family roles (Cooper et al., 2001). In some

3 instances certain in-role (worker or breadwinner) behaviour is not considered acceptable in the other role (family member). This corresponds with traditional role theorists who suggest that when a person assumes a particular role he or she internalises these behavioural expectations that have been socially constructed and that are associated with the role (Marks, 1998). Accordingly, when people assume a certain role they attempt to live up to the behavioural expectations associated with the role. Conflict becomes evident when one considers the rational view that suggests that people have a limited amount of time and energy, and that various roles will impose on these resources (Cooper et al., 2001). For example, the rational view states that the more time spent in either work or family domains the greater the conflict an individual will perceive (Gutek, Searle, & Klepa, 1991). province taking 13,7 percent of the South African surface area and 12,7 percent of the population (South Africa Info, 2013). According to Breier et al. (2009), 85 percent of the South African population makes use of public healthcare services, where 60 percent of the country s nurses and 40 percent of the doctors are employed. Even though there is a dispute over whether South Africa has a shortage of nurses (Breier, et al., 2009; Wildschut & Mqolozana, 2008a) the World Health Organisation (WHO) states that South Africa does not have a shortage of nurses; but rather a maldistribution of nurses throughout the nine provinces. Hall (2004) found that provinces that do show evidence of this maldistribution are the rural areas of South Africa, namely the Northern Cape, Mpumalanga, Limpopo, and the Eastern Cape. These conflicting views on the shortages in the nursing profession are evident because there are no reliable data available determine the demand and supply of nurses (Hall, 2004). Work-family conflict and the nursing profession Grzywacz, Frone, Brewer and Kovner (2006) identified two reasons why investigating workfamily conflict is important in the nursing profession. Firstly, work-family conflict may intensify the nursing shortage experienced in the profession, and it may serve as a barrier for those intending on entering the profession or those hastening to exit the profession. To bring this in context, South Africa is divided into nine provinces, of which the Eastern Cape is the second largest In South Africa the ratio of population per PN/RN is 417:1, whereas within the Eastern Cape Province it is 449:1 which is higher than the national ratio (SANC, 2013). Statistical information from WHO indicate that the global ratio is 29.7: translating to 1 PN/RN to a population of (WHO, 2010). This signifies that the Eastern Cape ratio is greater than the global average and therefore is experiencing a shortage. Role players in identifying shortages of nurses in South Africa are the South African Nursing Council (SANC) and Democratic Nursing Organisation of

4 South Africa (DENOSA). SANC is a statutory body that sets and maintains the standards of nursing education and practice in South Africa (SANC, 2013). DENOSA is a voluntary organisation that represents the interests of nurses and the practice thereof in South Africa; by promoting, protecting, developing, empowering and supporting nurses and midwives using legal mechanisms (DENOSA, 2013). SANC acknowledge that there is a shortage; however they simultaneously attempt to provide a positive picture with regards to the growth of nursing profession (Wildschut & Mqolozana, 2008b). On the other hand, DENOSA assert that there is a shortage of nurses in South Africa because it is not producing or training sufficient nurses to deal with the country s health needs (Wildschut & Mqolozana, 2008b). Research conducted by Breier et al. (2009) found that the shortage experienced is as a result of the aging of the profession s staff and the migration of registered and professional nurses to other countries. Breier et al. (2009) acknowledged that the international professional labour market has aided in the migration of nurses, however it brings with it the double edged sword of globalisation. On the one hand professionals may travel and advance their skills and on the other hand developing countries (such as South Africa) are losing the professionals that they educate, also known as the brain drain (Breier et al., 2009). Thus reiterating the concepts mentioned earlier around shortage and maldistribution. The legacy of apartheid has impacted on healthcare systems with regard to the maldistribution of staff, and poor skilled staff of many health personnel (Coovadia, Jewkes, Barron, Sanders, & McIntyre, 2009). In terms of the maldistribution of staff, during the apartheid era health care institutes in rural areas, where there is a high concentration of non-whites, were underresourced in terms of their nursing staff. The second reason identified by Grzywacz et al. (2006) in the significance of investigating workfamily conflict in this profession is that work-family conflict is associated with lower job satisfaction, burnout, fatigue, and emotional distress which is linked to poor performance by healthcare providers (Dollard, Winefield, & Winefield, 2003; Grzywacz et al., 2006; Lambert & Lambert, 2001). Furthermore, Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux and Brinley (2005) identified that these negative consequences of work-family conflict in the work domain may result in higher turnover intentions, and lower perceptions of career enhancements and lower satisfaction with family. The researcher argues that even though mechanisms are in place to balance these two domains (work and family), conflict will always be present, only differing in the degree or extent to which it is present. Kelly, Moen and Tranby (2011) argue that employees who have control over their work schedules experience work-life balance. In the nursing profession the work schedule is one element that employees have little or no control

5 over. In this instance work schedule is characterised by shift work (Dollard et al., 2003). Work-family conflict literature has also been dominated by research conducted in most Western and European countries (Lambert & Lambert, 2001; Yildirim & Aycan, 2008). Therefore results on work-family conflict may not be culturally. Pal and Saksvik (2008) have consequently argued that culture (which is socially constructed) is very important in conceptualising work-family conflict because culture is part of both the work environment and the individual. For this reason, to understand the collectivist culture in South Africa one needs to make reference to the concept of ubuntu, which is a social philosophy, a way of being, a code of ethics and behaviour deeply embedded in African culture (Nussbaum, 2003, p. 2). The African culture of ubuntu speaks to the collectivist culture where the self and the community are interconnected (Nussbaum, 2003). Characteristics of African families According to Amoateng and Richter (2003) and Ziehl (2002) the western society s view of family generally refers to a marital pair who maintains a household and their children. Anyone outside this definition of family, in the western view, is considered to be extended family. Extended family members could include grandparents, nieces, or nephews. In a diverse cultural society like South Africa, this western view of family falls short of the reality and thus may have practical implications when investigating the family demands. Statistics on the characteristics of South African households portray a picture of 81.4 percent males and 70.2 percent females having never been married, for the age group between 18 and 34 (Statistics South Africa, 2011). In addition to these results, it is important to identify that marriage and co-habitation have been amalgamated to provide a single percentage. This emphasises that the traditional family (nuclear) definition may be flawed in the current South African society. However changes in the lifestyle of people globally have also changed this concept. Instead of a husband and a wife, a nuclear family could be a man and woman living together, or co-habiting (Kayongo-Male & Onyango, 1984; Ziehl, 2002). A critique of the traditional family according to Murray (1981) (as cited in Kayongo-Male & Onyango, 1984) is that a nuclear family is static to the changes of the concept of family over time. A common characteristic of African families is the concept of extended families. Kayongo-Male and Onyango (1984) identified that extended family members sometimes stay with nuclear families for economic support. For example, working mothers who are not able to afford external help for household tasks opt to bring in extended family members to take care of these duties. The extended family structure is related to the African philosophy of ubuntu, which refers to values of collective sharedness, humility, solidarity, caring, hospitality, interdependence, communalism

6 amongst others (Kamwangamalu, 1999; Nussbaum, 2003). Gender Ideologies Gender ideology is the way in which a person identifies him- or herself in relation to marital and family roles that are traditionally linked to gender (Greenstein, 1996). This definition already poses some debate, for example how is marital defined, whether this includes or excludes partnership, and how do these ideologies relate in a context of single-headed households. Traditional role theorists, such as Katz and Kahn state that roles have specific sets of behaviours which are expected in a particular social position (cited in Frone & Rice, 1987). Hence, behaviours of each role in which an individual partakes is socially constructed. With reference to the present study, van der Merwe (1999) maintains that nurses face two conflicting ideologies: professionalism and domesticity. Where professional women are to work like a man and at the same time take care of the family and act like a woman, thus internal conflict arises (Cartwright, 1978). Work and family issues are related to cultural beliefs, norms and values, especially with regard to gender roles (Yildirim & Aycan, 2008). by Bittman, England, Sayer, Folbre and Matheson (2003) suggest that as women become the primary breadwinners, they do more domestic tasks to reinforce traditional gender roles. This is so in attempt to adhere to societal expectations. The traditional gender roles in terms of gender ideologies suggest that the division of domestic labour differs between men and women a women s work involves tasks such as cooking, laundry, house cleaning, childcare responsibilities and a man s work involves yard work and maintenance around the house (Emmons, Biernat, Tiedje, Lang, & Wortman, 1990; Greenstein, 1996). These differences in domestic labour in accordance to gender ideologies make reference to the physical and emotional work done. However, according to Maher, Lindsay and Bardoel (2010), the nature of the nursing profession is characterised by physical and emotional care of patients, which has shaped the perceptions that this profession is fitted to women. The very image of nursing maintains the stereotype of nurturing, self-sacrificing females who will always meet the needs of others (Letvak, 2001). Thus, reiterating gender role ideologies, and highlighting gendered professions (Rothausen-Vange, 2001). Gendered professions relate to society's expectations for an "ideal worker (Rothausen-Vange, 2001). The gender model assumes that work has different psychological and social meaning for men and women, and that gender role ideology and socialisation generates different expectations about work and family (Borman, Quarm, & Gideonse, 1984; Simon, 1995). Research findings Social Support There are two forms of support that have been considered when researching work-family conflict; these namely concern organisational support and the other non-work or social support. Support in

7 either the work and family domain can act as a buffering effect for conflict experiences in either role (Burleson, Albrecht, & Sarason, 1994; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985; Lapierre & Allen, 2006). Research on work-family conflict have identified that support is a mechanisms in reducing the effects of conflict in the work-family interface (Carlson & Perrewé, 1999; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Social support can be defined as the interpersonal transaction that involves emotional concern, instrumental aid, information, or appraisal (House, 1981 in Carlson & Perrewé, 1999, p. 514). The most important factor that may diminish work to family conflict is organisational support, especially support from managers (Somech & Drach-Zahavy, 2007). Organisational support relates to the organisational culture and work dynamics. Vis-à-vis, support from the family domain, relating to family culture and family dynamics, buffers family to work conflict. Method This study aimed to investigate the how work and family domains influence inter-role conflict, namely work-family conflict, in a specific profession and a specific context. In other words, it aimed to investigate the extent to which demographic characteristics, work demands, family demands, social support and gender role ideologies perpetuate or buffers this conflict in a sample of Professional/Registered nurses in the Cacadu District, Eastern Cape. Sample The sample was drawn from five district hospitals in the Cacadu District Municipality. These five hospitals serve two district clusters in the Eastern Cape. The sample technique therefore used was cluster random sampling, whereby the district hospitals served as the clusters. Random sampling permits each PN/RN in these clusters equal opportunity of being selected (Terre Blanche, Durrheim & Painter, 2006). The inclusion criteria was that PN/RNs had to live with a family (related/unrelated), have child(ren) and/or elderly persons in the household, working in the public healthcare system in the Cacadu District. The response rate for the study was low because district hospitals were visited during the day and some nurses were on night shift, some were on leave, certain wards were busier than others, and some opted not to participate in the study. However, 105 PN/RNs participated in the study which was sufficient to conduct the necessary statistics. Variables This study consisted of dependent variables (DVs), independent variables (IVs), and mediating variables. The DVs comprised of the multidimensions of work-family conflict, as identified in the multi-dimensional work-family scale (Carlson, Kacmar & Williams, 2000) below. The IVs were the demographic factors of the sample, and the mediating variables related to social support and gender role ideologies.

8 Figure 1 Conceptual model of work-family conflict Demographic factors Gender Age Marital d status Parental status Number of children in household Elderly in household Title Shift Personal income Household income Gender role ideologies Measuring instrument Validity and reliability are essential in scientific research (Terre Blanche, et al., 2006). It is for this reason that the instrument s validity and reliability needed to be identified, especially due to the study aiming to investigate the contextual relevance of this phenomenon. A survey questionnaire was utilised, which consisted of four sections: Section A: Demographic information Section B: Multi-dimensional work-family conflict scale (Carlson, et al., 2000) Section C: Social Support Questionnaire (Sarason, Sarason, Shearin, & Pierce, 1987) Work interfering with family Time-based Strain-based Behaviour-based Social Support Family interfering with work Time-based Strain-based Behaviour-based Section D: Gender role ideology scale (Tsai, 2008). The multi-dimensional work-family conflict scale measured the three forms and sources of conflict, namely time-based WIF (α =.87); time-based FIW (α.79); strain-based WIF (α =.85); strain-based FIW (α =.85); behaviour-based WIF (α =.78); and behaviour-based FIW (α =.85) (Carlson, et al., 2000). The Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ) was developed to quantify the availability and satisfaction of support to an individual (Sarason, et al., 1987). The internal reliability of this scale has been reported as being α =.97 (Sarason, et al., 1987). The gender role ideology scale measured the gender ideologies of women as it applies to how participants view work in relation to being a good mother and wife. This scale was adapted from work done by Tsai (2008), which originally designed the questions to measure role interdependence. As a role interdependence scale the internal reliability was low, with an α =.27. However, Tsai (2008) suggested that results from this scale can be interpreted in terms of the cultural value of participants. These questions were consequently used to measure gender role ideologies because in an African context, culture has a profound effect on establishing and understanding gender role ideologies (Oyewumi, 2002). The present study reported an α =.53. Data analysis Data obtained from the sample was statistically analysed using a computerised programme (STATISTICA). Firstly, basic descriptive statistics were performed to establish the characteristics of the demographics factors, and the relationships between the variables in the study. Correlations between the variables of the scales were preformed, and various significant relationships between variables resulted. Therefore secondly,

9 multiple regressions were conducted to explain the variances between the variables. Results Demographic information. Gender. Of the 105 participants in the study, 9 were male and 96 were female. These results allude to the idea of the gendered profession highlighted above. In other words, the profession still remains a female dominated profession. Age. Coded <1949 (0) to (5). Results indicate that 3 participants were born in or before 1949, that is 2.86 percent were older than 64 years. 15 participants were born between the years 1950 and 1959, in other words percent were between the ages of 63 and 54 years. Participants between the ages of 53 and 44 years (born between 1960 and 1969) comprised of percent of the sample percent of the study represented those participants that were between the ages of 43 and 34 years (born between 1970 and 1979). And lastly, percent of the sample consisted of those participants that were between the ages of 33 and 24 years (born between 1980 and 1989). From the statistics provided, the majority of the participants were between the ages of 53 and 44. Marital status. 52 of the 105 (49.52%) participants reported that they were not married, and 40 (38.09%) were married. 8 (7.62%) participants were divorced and 3 (2.86%) were widowed. Only 2 of the participants in the study were co-habiting. Parental status and children in household percent of the participants were parents, and percent were not parents. In addition to this, participants were asked to identify the number of children in their households. Even though 20 of the participants were not parents, only 14 of the participants indicated that there were no children in their households. 21 (20%) of the participants indicated that there was 1 child in their household. The majority of the participants in this study indicated that they had 2 children in their household, specifically 40 percent of the participants percent had 3 children, 3.81 percent had 4 children, 1.91 percent had 5 children, 2.86 percent had 6 children, and.95 percent had more than 7 children in their households. Elderly in household. The majority, or percent, of the participants had no elderly person or persons in their household percent had elderly person(s) in their household. Title percent of the participants indicated that they were Professional Nurses (PN) and percent were Registered Nurses (RN) percent of the participants in the study comprised of managers. These managers consisted of nurses that are assistant manager: nursing, operational managers, and ward managers. Personal and household income. Personal income refers to the income that the participants receive for their services rendered. The majority (52.38%) of the participants received a personal income of between R and R per month percent received a personal income of between R5 001 and R10 000, and 18.1 percent received between R and R per month percent and 3.81 percent received between

10 R and R25 000, and R and R per month respectively. Household income refers to the income received by all members in the household from all sources. 15 of the 20 participants who received a personal income of between R5 001 and R per month, maintained this income level in terms of household income. The majority (47.62%) of the participants received a household income of R to R per month percent had a household income of greater than R per month. Distribution of scores The multidimensional work-family conflict scale had a score range of three (seldom/never) and 15 (often/always). The scores for Time-based WIF were normally distributed, where the majority of the participants scored between eight and ten on time-based WIF, or sometimes experiencing timebased WIF. Time-based FIW scores were positively skewed, where there is a cluster of low (three) scores for this variable, interpreted as sample seldom/never experiencing time-based FIW. Strain-based WIF was normally distributed, therefore the majority of the scores are clustered in the centre of the distribution (or sometimes experiencing strain-based WIF). Strain-based FIW is positively skewed since majority are clustered around the low scores (seldom/never experiencing strain-based FIW). Both forms of behaviour-based conflict (WIF and FIW) are normally distributed. The sample indicated that they seldom/never or sometimes experienced behaviour-based WIF and seldom/never experienced behaviour-based FIW. The satisfaction with social support had a range of zero (very dissatisfied) and six (very satisfied). The satisfaction with social support was negatively skewed, since there is a cluster of high scores, where the majority indicated that their satisfaction was between four (little satisfied) and six (very satisfied). Lastly, scores on the gender role ideologies scale was between five (traditional gender ideologies) and 35 (non-traditional gender ideologies). The results from this study suggest that the distribution on this scale is normally distributed, in view of that majority of the participants score between 15 and 20 (bordering between traditional and nontraditional). Significant multiple regression results Table 1 Significant predictors (p < 0.05) of time-based FIW Variable entered R R 2 Beta F Working is part of being a good mother Table 1 presents results that indicate regression of the variable of paid work as being part of a good mother or wife (gender role ideologies) on timebased FIW. Time-based FIW construct measures the degree of conflict when time devoted to family makes it difficult to participate in work. Results from the multiple regression analysis indicated that Time-based FIW accounts for 7% of variance, R 2 =

11 .07. This result indicated a positive relationship exists between time-based FIW and participants who were of the opinion that working is part of being a good mother (t = 2.05, α =.04). Therefore, participants experienced.24 times more timebased FIW when they perceived work as being part of being a good mother. Table 2 Significant predictors (p < 0.05) of strain-based WIF Variable entered R R 2 Beta F Birth year Table 2 presents the regression of age (birth year) on strain-based WIF. Strain-based WIF measures the degree of conflict experienced when strain is experienced in the work domain and spills over into the family domain. Results indicate that strainbased WIF accounts for 14% of variance, where R 2 =.14. There is a positive relationship between strain-based WIF and year of birth (t = 2.15, α =.03). The younger participants experienced.24 times more strain from work to family. Table 3 Significant predictors (p < 0.05) of behaviour-based WIF Variable entered R R 2 Beta F Education In table 3, education regressed on behaviour-based WIF. Results of the multiple regression indicated that behaviour-based WIF accounts for 17% variance (R 2 =.17). There is a negative relationship between behaviour-based WIF and education (β = -.24), thus suggesting that education decreased behaviour-based WIF by.24 times. Table 4 Significant predictors (p < 0.05) of behaviour-based FIW Variable entered R R 2 Beta F Shift Work not related towards family obligations Work is selfsacrifice for wellbeing of family The behaviour-based FIW construct measures the degree of conflict experienced when specific behaviour required in the family role are incompatible with the behaviour required to meet work demands. Results indicated that behaviourbased FIW accounts for 18% of variance in the model, R 2 =.18. Behaviour-based FIW had a positive relationship with shifts worked (day night shift), therefore as behaviour-based FIW increased by.35 (β =.35) when participants were on night shift. A negative relationship exists between behaviourbased FIW and participants who regarded their work as not being related to their obligations

12 towards their family, and giving up family time for work as a form of self-sacrifice for the wellbeing of their family (both relating to gender ideology). In other words, the less the participants believed that their work is not related to their family obligations the greater their behaviour-based conflict from family to work (t = -2.20, α =.03). Likewise, the less the participants viewed that giving up family time for work as a form of self-sacrifice of a mother, the greater the behaviour-based family interfering with work (t = -2.21, α =.01). Table 5 Significant predictors (p < 0.05) of gender role ideologies Variable entered R R 2 Beta F Elderly in household Results indicate that gender role ideologies accounted for 13% of variance (table 5). Gender role ideologies were reinforced for participants that had elderly person(s) in their households (t = 2.4, α =.02). in African traditions elders play a major role in transferring community/societal behavioural expectations, values and morals onto younger adults and children (Nafukho, 2006). Table 6 Significant predictors (p < 0.05) of social support provided by family Variable entered R R 2 Beta F Currently studying Social support provided by family members accounted for 11.97% of variance, and those participants that were currently studying received.22 times more support from their families (t = 2.05, α =.04). Discussion Working is considered to be part of being a good mother or wife, according to the results, which increased the time-based family interfering with work. Being a good mother extends beyond the traditional ideology of providing emotional support but also providing financial support to family. Therefore this study suggests that work is not a secondary role for PN/RNs in the district. In other words, for this female dominated profession, work is a second primary role, carrying the same level of importance as being a mother and a spouse. It therefore proposes that this level of role involvement for PN/RNs conveys into the multiple roles competing for time. According to the role expansion theory, paid work provides psychological and social benefits such as selfesteem through financial independence and social interaction and social status (Falzon, 2007). Consequently, when viewing paid work as a part of being a good mother or wife (a non-traditional gender role view) gives rise to the competing demand of the finite resource available to individuals, time. The PN/RNs also reported that their work is related to their family obligations and that working is a self-sacrifice used to benefit the family s wellbeing. Both these views are non-traditional gender role

13 views, however this profession is regarded as one that is suited for women. Therefore, these can be viewed as gendered roles. Behaviour-based conflict is based on the premise that attitudes, values and behaviour used in one domain makes it difficult to behave in another (Cooper, et al., 2001), this then indicates behavioural incompatibility of roles. According to Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) at home families demand nurturance and warmth, therefore requiring women to provide emotional support. The nursing profession is often regarded as a caring profession (Dollard, et al., 2003) thus aligning the behavioural expectations of both work and family roles. There appears to be role compatibility between work and family of professional nurses in this context. However, this raises issues regarding the South African nursing strategy to alleviate the shortage of staff in the country by attracting men to the profession in a society where the profession is regarded as a women s profession. This study clearly demonstrates this as 91% of the sample was female. Strain-based conflict refers to the emotional interference of one domain to the other, otherwise known as negative emotional spillover (Bartolome & Evens, 1980; Cooper, et al., 2001; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Stressful events such as the individual s work environment, lack of resources, and experiencing death, dying or ill patients may be construed as influencing strain-based WIF. For professional nurses the shift work hours may relate to the work being physically taxing on individuals. The care provided by these nurses may result in the work being emotionally draining. And work overload (due to the shortage of staff in this area) and lack of resources to effectively perform work affix added pressure resulting in stress. These are conditions in the work environment that may cause strain-based conflict The younger the PN/RNs the more the strain-based WIF is. There may be a few reasons why this is the case. For example, the older generation professionals have attained ways of managing with this form of conflict, thereby having coping mechanisms to deal with stressful events. These coping mechanisms may be as a result of experience in the profession. This strain-based WIF because of age differences marks the role incompatibility of the profession to younger PN/RNs. It should therefore be noted, that this profession requires a passion for a career as a professional nurse. In other words, it is not enough to attract individuals into the profession to curb the shortage experience through maldistribution, by for example providing bursaries to have a formal higher education qualification. But rather, re-establishing the image and status of the profession in the society. To achieve this, much more still needs to be done to ensure that the resources are available to individuals to execute their jobs. This will not be instantaneous change, but steps have been taken to ensure that the public healthcare profession has resources available, such as equipment, but there also needs to be resources such as coaching or mentoring systems in place.

14 Gender role ideologies are reinforced when elderly persons are in the household. This is an important phenomenon in the context of the study. It is for this reason that there is this constant internal conflict in the mind of individuals, regarding the amount of time that is spent in the family. In addition, where PN/RNs were currently studying (additional education qualifications) the PN/RNs reported that family members provided social support. This is aligned to what is known as ubuntuism which according to Shiundu and Omulando (1992) (as cited in Nafuko, 2006, p. 411) refers to learning for the purpose of enabling individuals to play family, community, and societal roles. Therefore, the individual and society are benefiting from the individual s learning. Conclusion Although much more research needs to be conducted in this context, this study allows for some insight on the phenomena, where gender ideology is the underlying theme of work-family conflict of PN/RNs in the context of Cacadu District (Eastern Cape, South Africa). This profession is evidently still regarded as being female dominated in the Cacadu District; therefore strategies to curb the shortage or maldistributions need to take this into account. In this profession and in the context of this study, role conflict is not perceived as being as prevalent with regard to FIW as it is from WIF. This may illustrate the role conflict of professionalism versus domesticity which is underpinned by traditional gender role ideologies. Hence, policy makers of the profession in the Eastern Cape South Africa need to start inquiring into ways to lessen the spillover from work to family, especially with reference to time-based and strain-based WIF. Although this profession is satisfied with the social support it receives, they largely depend on their family for social support. This may be owing to the concept of ubuntu. Therefore, the profession needs allow for ways of incorporating this value of ubuntu when putting in place mechanism as a form support from the work domain. Like any research, this study was not free of limitations. Firstly, the sample size may be too small to make inferences on the South African PN/RN population. However, the study provides contextually relevant results of work-family conflict in a profession-specific and location-specific manner. Secondly, this was a quantitative study based on Western and European measuring instruments. Therefore the study only provides for a starting point for research of the phenomena in the nursing profession. There thus needs to be a qualitative investigation of work-family conflict in the profession and in the context in which the profession exists, to find ways of constructing a contextually relevant instrument, in this manner allowing policy makers to make informed decisions to lessen work-family conflict and be aware of factors influencing work-family conflict.

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